STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

LOS  ANGELES,  CAUFORNIA 


Successful 
Fruit  Culture 


A  PRACTICAL   GUIDE  TO  THE   CULTIVATION 
AND  PROPAGATION  OF  FRUITS 


By 
SAMUEL   T.  MAYNARD,  B.  Sc. 

Formerly  Professor  of   Horticulture   at  the    Massachusetts  Agricultural 

College ;   Botanist  and  Pomologist  to  the  Massachusetts 

Board  of  Agriculture,  etc.,  etc. 


Illustrated 


ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

New  York 

1911 


COPYRIGHT  1905 

By 
ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 


[Printed  iu  U.  S.  A.J 


:. :  v 


513 
355 


PREFACE 


During  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years  great  progress 
has  been  made  in  the  cultivation  and  care  of  our  hardy 
fruits  and  especially  in  the  varieties  grown,  the.  methods 
of  packing,  shipping  and  marketing,  and  during  this 
time  few  books  have  been  written  which  have  kept  up 
with  this  progress.  This  progress  and  the  knowledge 
of  insect  and  fungous  pests  and  their  destruction  has 
been  largely  recorded  in  scientific  books  and  papers 
from  the  numerous  experiment  stations,  with  little 
from  the  practical  and  practicing  fruit  growers,  and 
there  is  a  growing  need  of  a  condensed  work  giving,  in 
plain  language,  a  summary  of  the  scientific  progress 
made,  together  with  the  practice  of  the  most  successful 
fruit  growers  in  various  sections  of  the  country.  Espe- 
cially is  this  information  needed  that  those  just  starting 
out  in  the  business  of  fruit  growing,  or  the  village  home 
owner  who  wishes  to  grow  a  small  quantity  of  fruit  for 
family  consumption,  may  find  in  a  condensed  form  the 
information  necessary  for  success.  It  is,  therefore,  the 
aim  of  the  author  to  make  a  book  that  is  up  to  date  in 
every  particular  and  to  cover  the  entire  practice  of  fruit 
growing  from  the  starting  of  the  seed  or  cutting  to  the 
marketing  of  the  fruit,  though  in  many  cases  works 
devoted  to  special  fruits  may  be  more  complete.  It  is 
written  from  the  standpoint  of  the  practical  fruit  grower 
who  is  striving  to  make  his  business  profitable  by 
growing  the  best  fruit  possible  and  at  the  least  cost. 

No  attempt  is  made  to  describe  a  large  number  of 
varieties,  nor  many  of  the  numerous  methods  of  train- 
ing, pruning,  cultivating,  etc.,  but  to  give  in  plain, 


VI  PREFACE 

practical  language  descriptions  of  such  varieties  as  are 
most  in  demand  in  our  markets,  and  the  methods  prac- 
ticed by  the  most  successful  cultivators  of  many  sections 
of  the  country;  to  deal  with  principles  first  and  with 
the  practice  afterward,  for  the  practice  to  be  successful 
must  be  based  upon  correct  principles,  while  the  practice 
will  always  be  varied  by  the  progressive  fruit  grower 
according  to  his  immediate  conditions  and  environment. 
The  foundation  principles  of  plant  growth  and  nourish- 
ment, however,  must  always  remain  the  same. 

No  one  can  foresee  what  results  the  changing  con- 
ditions from  year  to  year  of  our  own  country  or  of 
those  of  other  countries  of  the  world  may  bring  about 
in  our  methods  of  fruit  growing,  and  the  progressive 
fruit  grower  must  be  ready  to  adapt  himself  to  these 
conditions  or  be  left  behind  in  the  march  of  competition. 
The  Northern  States  cannot  expect  to  compete  suc- 
cessfully with  the  more  southern  of  our  own  States  in 
growing  our  native  fruits  out  of  season,  but  each  section 
can  produce  them  to  such  a  degree  of  perfection  and  put 
them  into  the  hands  of  the  consumer  in  such  a  fresh 
and  attractive  condition  that  there  need  be  little  desire 
on  the  part  of  dealers  or  consumers  in  any  community 
to  send  beyond  their  own  limits  for  their  supply  of 
fresh  fruit  in  its  season. 

We  should  also  make  an  effort  to  supply  any  de- 
mand that  may  come  from  less  favored  countries,  and, 
properly  managed,  this  demand  for  our  native  fruits 
should  assume  very  large  proportions,  but  the  main 
effort  of  the  fruit  growers,  for  whom  this  book  is 
written,  should  be  to  supply  their  own  sections  with 
fruit  in  such  an  abundance  and  perfection  and  at  such 
prices  that  the  inferior  products  of  other  sections  and 
other  countries  cannot  secure  our  markets  against  the 
home  supply.  S.  T.  MAYNARD. 

NORTHBORO,  MASS.,  1905. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 


INTRODUCTION 


PAGF 

1  to       6 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  APPLE 7  to     70 

CHAPTER  III 
THE  PEAR ?1  to     77 

CHAPTER   IV 
THEPEACH ™  to    91 

CHAPTER  V 
THE  APRICOT  AND  NECTARINE 92  to 

CHAPTER  VI 

THEPLuk 95  to  102 

CHAPTER   VII 

THE  CHERRY 103  to  107 

CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  QUINCE 108  to  111 

CHAPTER  IX 
THE  MULBERRY 112  to  113 


Vili  CONTENTS 

CHAPTEK  X 

PACK 

THE  GRAPE 114  to  129 

CHAPTEE  XI 
THE  BLACKBERRY 130  to  138 

CHAPTER   XII 
THE  RASPBERRY 139  to  146 

CHAPTER   XIII 
THE  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY 147  to  152 

CHAPTER   XIV 
THE  STRAWBERRY 153  to  169 

CHAPTER  XV 
THE  CRANBERRY 170  to  173 

CHAPTER    XVI 
THE  BLUEBERRY  AND  HUCKLEBERRY 174  to  175 

CHAPTER  XVII 
SUB-TROPICAL  FRUITS 176  to  182 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  TREES  AND  PLANTS.  183  to  204 

CHAPTER  XIX 
FRUIT  UNDER  GLASS 205  to  219 

CHAPTER  XX 
INSECT  PESTS  220  to  249 

CHAPTER    XXI 

FUNGOUS  DISEASES  . ,  .  .250  to  265 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAGE 

1  Perfectly   Formed  Apple  Tree Frontispiece 

2  Trench  Plow  11 

3  Apple  Orchard  Too  Closely  Planted  13 

4  Apple  Tree  Perfectly  Formed,  Low  Headed 14 

5  Planting  Board  15 

6  Planting  Board  in  Use  16 

7  Tree  Properly  Pruned  for  Planting  17 

8  Well  Formed  Tree  Twelve  Years  Old    18 

9  Well  Formed  Tree  Twelve  Years  Old  in  Bloom 19 

10  Methods  of  Heeling-in  Trees  20 

11  Zinc  Tree  Label  22 

12  Lew  Hanging  Steel  Plow  24 

13  Cutaway  Wheel  Harrow  25 

14  Orchard  Harrow,  California  25 

15  Acme  Spring  Tooth  Harrow  26 

16  Giape  Hoe   26 

17  Weeder  27 

18  Cover  Crop  of  Canada  Peas  and  Barley  35 

19  Apple  Tree  Pruned  Too  Severely  37 

20  Apple  Tree,  Lower  Branches  Pruned  38 

21  Apple  Tree,  Where  to  Cut  Large  Branch 38 

22  Apple  Tree,  Pruning  Crossing  Branches 39 

23  Pruning  Saw    40 

24  Paragon  Pruning  Saw  40 

25  Pruning  Hook  41 

26  Pruning  Shears  42 

27  Regraf ted  Tree  46 

28  Cleft  Grafting  47 

29  The  Cion  48 

30  Cleft  Grafting,  Starting  and  Growth 48 

31  Cleft  Grafting,  Horizontal  View  48 

32  Cion,  Horizontal  View  48 

33  Crown  Grafting   49 

34  Cleft  Graft  with  Four  Cions 49 

35  Orchard  Stepladder   59 

•36    Cornerpieces  on  Bushel  Boxes  61 

37  Apples  in  Bushel  Boxes   61 

38  Screw  Apple  Press  63 

39  Lever  Apple  Press 64 

40  Cold  Storage  Fruit  House  69 

41  No.  2  Peach  Tree  80 

42  No.  1  Peach  Tree  80 

43a  Peach  Tree  Trimmed  to  Whip  80 

43b  Peach  Tree  Cut  Back  to  Stub 80 

iz 


X  ILLUSTRATIONS 

fll  PAGES 

44  Peach  Tree  Before  Pruning  82 

45  Peach  Tree  Pruned   83 

16     Peach  Tree  Improved  84 

47  Peach  Orchard  Cultivated  85 

48  Peach  Orchard  Four  Years  Old  86 

49  Peach  Orchard  in  Grass 87 

50  Georgia  Peach  Carrier  90 

61    Fellenberg  Plum  99 

52  Satsuma  Plum   : 100 

53  Hawkeye  Plum  101 

54  Sweet  Cherry  Trees  105 

55  Sour  Cherry  Trees  106 

56  Low  Branching  Quince  Tree 109 

57  Orange  Quince 110 

58  Rea's  Quince  110 

59  New  American  Mulberry  112 

60  Downing  Mulberry  112 

61  Planting  Grapevine   116 

62  Vineyard  with  Cover  Crop  117 

63  Vineyard  Without  Cover  Crop  117 

64  economical  Use  of  Posts  118 

65  The  Kniffin  System  of  Grape  Training  119 

66  Method  of  Bracing  End  Posts  120 

67  Modified  Kniffin  System  of  Grape  Training 121 

68  Grape  Picking  and  Storing  Tray 124 

69  Implements  for  Girdling  Grapevines  128 

70  Blackberries  Pruned  and  Unpruned  132 

71  Crosspiece  to  Blackberry  Trellis  134 

72  Supports  for  Blackberries  and  Raspberries  135 

73  Luc.-etia  Dewberry  137 

74  Red  Raspberry,  Field  Culture  140 

75  Laying  Down  Raspberry  Canes  141 

76  Blackca  p  Raspberry  Tips  Rooted  143 

77  Cherry  Currant  149 

78  White  Imperial  Currant  150 

79-80    Arrangoment    of    Planting    Staminate    and    Pis- 
tillate Varieties   155 

81  Plant  Set  Too  Deep  156 

82  Plant  Set  Too  Shallow  156 

83  Plant  Set  Just  Right  157 

84  Diagram  of  Hwdge  Row  System 157 

85  Strawberries  hi  Wide  Matted  Rows 158 

86  Ditch  Method  of  Irrigation  161 

87  Staminate  Flower  of  Strawberry  168 

88  Pistillate  Flower  of  Strawberry  164 

89  The  Marshall  Strawberry  Carrier  168 

90  Large  Bell  Cranbervy  . , 172 

91  Orange  Tree  in  Tub  17* 

92  Bearing  Branch  of  Fi*     181 

93-94-95    Root  Grafting  185 

96  Budstick    1ST 

97  Budding  Knives  188 

98-99-100-101    Budding   188 


ILLUSTRATIONS  XI 


FIG.  PAGE 

102-103    Nursery  Treatment  of  Young  Trees  190 

104  Quince  Stool  197 

105  Grape  Cutting 198 

106  Layering  the  Grapevine 199 

107  Grafting  the  Grape   200 

108  Span  Roof  Curvilinear  Fruit  House 205 

109  Lean-to  Fruit  House 206 

110  Fruit  House  Wall  with  Opening  into  Outside  Border. 208 

111  Cold  Grapery  Border 212 

112  Training  the  Vine,  Third  Year  215 

113  Layering  Strawberry  Plants  in  Pots 217 

114  A  Bench  of  Strawberry  Plants  for  Forcing 218 

115  Round-headed  Apple  Tree  Borer  224 

116  Flat-headed  Apple  Tree  Borer  225 

117  Oyster  Shell  Bark  Louse 226 

118  Tent  Caterpillar  227 

119  San  Jose  Scale 228 

120  Canker  Worm   230 

121  Apple  Aphis 232 

122  Codlin  Moth   233 

123  Apple  Maggot   234 

124  Woolly  Aphis  235 

125  Pear  Psylla  237 

126  Plum  Curculio   239 

127  Curculio  Catcher  240 

128  Rose  Bug  or  Chafer  241 

129  Currant  Worm   24S 

130  Currant  Eggs  on  Leaf  244 

131  Currant  Worms  Eating  Leaves  245 

132  May  Beetle   247 

133  Strawberry  Crown  Borer  248 


INTRODUCTION 

The  importance  of  the  fruit  industry  to  the  people 
of  the  United  States  presents  several  phases,  among 
which  are  the  value  of  fruit  as  a  promoter  of  health, 
its  value  as  a  luxury  and  its  importance  as  a  money  crop. 

AS     A     PROMOTER     OP     HEALTH 

In  this  way  I  consider  fruit  as  of  by  far  greater 
value  to  man  than  in  any  other.  Our  country  is  in  a 
remarkably  prosperous  condition  and  our  people  can 
very  easily  obtain  the  food  materials  necessary  to  the 
formation  of  muscle,  bone  and  fat,  and  it  has  been 
the  tendency  of  a  large  majority  of  them  to  be  satisfied 
with  meat,  bread,  pastry  and  numerous  condiments 
without  an  adequate  supply  of  vegetables  and  fruit. 

Fruit  is  generally  looked  upon  as  a  luxury,  but 
when  properly  considered  it  is  a  necessity,  an  aid  to  the 
proper  utilization  of  the  heavier  food  materials  and  for 
invigorating  the  various  organs  of  the  body  so  that 
they  may  best  meet  the  demands  made  upon  them  and 
properly  store  up  materials  for  repairing  all  wastes 
resulting  from  bodily  efforts. 

That  fresh,  ripe  fruit,  in  moderate  quantities,  does 
enable  the  system  to  utilize  other  food  materials  taken 
into  it  for  nourishment,  and  causes  all  of  the  organs 
to  act  with  more  vigor,  needs  no  extended  discussion 
here.  Our  people  should  use  more  fruit,  and  they  would 
find  it  profitable  to  do  so,  from  many  points  of  view, 
and  much  cheaper  than  doctor's  bills. 


2  SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

AS  A  LUXURY 

From  the  above  point  of  view  fruit  is  an  indis- 
pensable article  of  food.  Fresh  ripe  fruit  is  always  ac- 
ceptable with  meals,  or  for  the  midday  lunch  it  is  far 
more  refreshing  than  any  fermented  beverage  and  more 
nutritious  than  the  choicest  pastry  or  confectionery. 
What  a  variety  of  delicious  dishes  can  be  prepared  from 
fresh  fruit  or  from  the  dried  or  canned  product  that 
keeps  in  a  perfect  condition  so  long  after  its  natural 
season.  What  fond  recollections  often  in  later  years 
linger  around  the  old  home  where  an  abundance  of  fruit 
was  the  lot  of  youth  now  grown  gray  in  the  service 
of  mankind.  What  a  source  of  pleasure  and  refreshment 
to  the  laboring  mechanic  or  tiller  of  the  soil  after  a  long 
day's  toil  in  the  summer  or  autumn  or  during  the  cold 
days  of  winter,  and  yet  how  few  of  our  laboring  people 
can  enjoy  more  than  a  small  fraction  of  the  fruit  needed 
for  health  and  enjoyment. 

AS    A    MONEY     CROP 

Some  idea  of  the  importance  of  the  fruit  crops 
of  the  United  States  may  be  obtained  when  we  consider 
the  extent  of  land  occupied  by  some  of  our  fruits, 
although  accurate  statistics  are  not  available  for  all 
kinds  of  fruits,  and  the  immense  quantity  of  fruit 
produced  for  our  own  consumption  and  for  shipping  to 
other  countries.  The  census  of  1900  gives  the  number 
of  apple  trees  of  bearing  age  in  the  United  States, 
201,794,764,  and  the  crop  of  apples  produced  175,397,- 
626  bushels;  the  number  of  peach  trees  99,919,428, 
with  a  crop  of  15,433,601  bushels;  the  number  of  grape- 
vines over  200,000,000,  while  the  grape  crop  was  over 
1,200,000,000  pounds. 

Statistics  of  acreage  and  products  of  the  other 
hardy  fruits  to  be  found  are  so  unsatisfactory  that  they 


INTRODUCTION  3 

are  not  given,  but  we  know  that  in  many  localities  the 
number  of  bushels  of  small  fruits  far  exceeds  the  yield 
of  the  large  fruits,  and  that  they  are  more  or  less  grown 
for  home  consumption  on  at  least  a  majority  of  the 
farm  homes  of  the  country,  and  in  most  of  the  home 
gardens  in  villages  where  there  is  sufficient  land. 

In  the  extreme  Southern  States  and  on  the  Pacific 
slope  we  find  large  areas  planted  with  oranges,  lemons, 
pineapples,  raisin  grapes,  prunes,  and  it  is  claimed  that 
in  Florida  and  California  there  are  orange  trees  enough 
planted  to  produce  more  than  10,000,000  boxes  of  fruit 
annually,  while  on  the  Pacific  slope  so  many  prunes  are 
produced  (600,000,000  pounds  reported  as  the  crop  of 
1904)  and  those  of  such  fine  quality  as  to  reduce  the 
importation  of  prunes  from  Southern  Europe  to  a  mere 
nominal  quantity.  Within  the  past  few  years  the 
planting  of  fruit  trees  and  vines  has  increased  very 
rapidly  in  all  sections  of  the  country,  except  possibly 
in  Xew  England,  so  that  we  have  some  of  the  largest 
orchards  in  the  world  in  our  midst. 

In  Missouri,  Kansas  and  some  of  the  other  Middle 
Western  States,  may  be  found  apple  orchards  of  thou- 
sands of  acres  in  extent;  on  the  Pacific  slope  the  prune 
growing  industry  is  assuming  immense  proportions,  and 
it  is  said  that  the  grape  growing  section  or  belt 
between  Lake  Erie  on  the  north  and  Lake  Chautauqua 
on  the  south  is  the  largest  in  the  world.  Yet,  notwith- 
standing this  immense  increase  in  planting,  the  demand 
for  our  fruit  products  keeps  pace  with  the  supply,  prices 
are  sustained,  our  people  are  not  supplied  with  nearly 
the  quantity  of  fresh  fruit  that  they  need  for  health 
and  comfort,  and  with  our  rapid  growth  in  wealth  and 
population  we  must  expect  equally  rapid  increase  in 
the  demand  for  choice  fruit. 

Foreign  markets,  too,  are  demanding  the  products 
of  our  orchards  and  if  properly  managed  this  demand 


4  SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

should  be  sufficient  to  largely  take  the  surplus  that 
our  own  population  does  not  consume.  In  a  single  year 
we  exported  over  3,395,000  barrels  of  apples  to  Europe 
(largely,  or  almost  wholly  to  England),  and  a  demand 
for  other  fruits  in  large  quantities  will  no  doubt  arise 
whenever  we  can  deliver  them  to  these  markets  in  a 
satisfactory  condition.  The  great  progress  being  made 
in  methods  of  preservation  and  shipping  fresh  fruits 
will,  no  doubt,  soon  solve  this  important  problem,  when 
we  can  hope  to  ship  successfully  to  European  markets 
our  oranges,  grapes,  pears,  plums  and  even  peaches. 

Within  the  past  few  years  a  large  demand  has 
arisen  for  our  evaporated  fruits  in  foreign  markets,  and 
the  fact  that  in  this  condition  these  products  can  be 
kept  for  an  almost  indefinite  time,  occupy  the  least 
possible  space  and  can  be  shipped  to  the  remotest  mar- 
kets of  the  world  must  lead  in  the  future  to  their  large 
consumption.  In  1897  30,883,921  pounds  of  evaporated 
apple  was  exported  from  the  United  States  to  foreign 
countries. 

The  business  of  utilizing  the  products  of  our 
orchards  and  gardens  by  evaporation  and  canning, 
while  in  its  infancy,  has  reached  large  proportions,  espe- 
cially in  seasons  of  abundance,  where  the  supply  can 
thus  be  carried  over  to  seasons  of  scarcity,  but  is  des- 
tined to  become  a  far  greater  factor  in  the  future  of 
fruit  growing.  The  immense  wastes  of  our  orchards 
during  the  summer  and  autumn,  when  fruit  perishes 
very  quickly,  may  be  in  this  way  saved.  It  is  said  that 
over  600  carloads  of  evaporated  apple  were  shipped 
from  one  county  in  New  York  State  in  the  season  of 
1894,  and  other  sections  are  rapidly  increasing  in  this 
method  of  utilizing  the  poorer  grades  of  apples.  The 
city  of  Boston  in  one  season  consumed  over  1,000,000 
pounds  of  evaporated  apple  and  more  than  the  same 
number  of  gallons  of  canned  apple.  The  surplus  and 


INTRODUCTION  5 

especially  the  more  perishable  grades  of  all  kinds  of 
fruits  may  be  utilized,  either  in  the  canned  or  evap- 
orated condition,  which  must  be  kept  out  of  the  mar- 
kets, or  low  prices  of  all  grades  will  rule. 

THE    COST    OP    PRODUCTION 

The  cost  of  production  of  any  article,  whether  it 
be  from  the  factory  or  a  crop  grown  in  the  field,  is  a 
very  important  factor,  and  while,  with  the  products  of 
the  factory,  the  cost  of  production  has  been  wonder- 
fully reduced,  the  cost  of  the  fruit  crop  or  other  farm 
and  garden  crops  has  not  been  materially  reduced, 
owing  to  the  high  price  of  labor  and  the  difficulty  of 
applying  labor  saving  machinery.  It  may  be  said  in 
this  connection,  however,  that  the  price  of  farm  and 
garden  crops,  and  especially  the  fruit  crops,  has  not 
been  reduced  very  materially,  and  to  the  intelligent 
fruit  grower,  who  applies  good  business  principles  to 
his  work,  who  uses  the  best  labor  saving  devices  for 
reducing  the  cost  and  improvement  of  his  product  and 
who  looks  to  the  details  of  the  production  and  the  sale 
of  his  crops  as  closely  as  does  the  successful  merchant 
or  manufacturer,  there  is  almost  a  certain  promise  of 
financial  success. 

FUTURE     PROSPECTS     OP     SUCCESS     IN     FRUIT     GROWING 

The  rapid  increase  of  the  country  in  population  and 
wealth  must  lead  to  a  proportionate  increase  in  the 
demand  for  native  fruit,  provided  the  growers  are  wise 
and  produce  attractive  fruit  of  fine  quality.  Good  fruit 
of  any  kind,  well  grown,  and  put  up  in  an  attractive 
manner,  will  increase  the  demand  and  price  for  that 
kind  of  fruit,  while  poor  fruit  will  not  only  decrease 
the  demand  and  also  the  price  of  that  particular  grade, 
but  more  or  less  of  all  other  grades. 


t>  SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 

We  may  give  this,  therefore,  as  a  rule  or  axiom 
in  fruit  growing:  "That  the  more  choice  fruit  of  any 
kind  the  people  have,  the  more  they  want,  while  the 
more  poor  fruit^p^ii.  ll^pn^  the  market  the  less  the 
demand"  Of  course  the  prices,  other  things  being 
equal,  will  depend  largely  upon  the  supply  and  demand, 
yet  the  sales  are  more  or  less  well  founded  upon  the 
above  facts.  The  problem,  then,  that  confronts  the  fruit 
grower  of  to-day  is  "how  to  grow  good  fruit,  how  to  grow 
it  cheaply,  how  to  attract  buyers,  and  how  to  utilize  all 
of  the  products"  In  the  future  chapters  of  this  book 
it  will  be  my  aim  to  keep  these  points  always  in  mind, 
to  present  the  latest  and  most  practical  thoughts,  and 
to  show  what  methods  progressive  and  successful  fruit 
growers  are  following,  what  varieties  they  are  growing 
and  how  they  conduct  their  business. 


II 


THE  APPLE 

2.  6  <?  -/  O 

THE.  COMMON  APPLE  (Pyrus  mains) 
THE  SIBEEIAN  APPLE  (Pyrus  laccatd) 

The  apple  is  at  once  the  most  important  and  the 
most  widely  disseminated  of  all  the  large  fruits,  being 
found  more  or  less  in  all  the  temperate  regions  wher- 
ever civilization  exists.  Its  fruit  may  be  had  in  a  fresh 
condition,  without  special  preserving  applications,  from 
August  to  June,  and  by  the  aid  of  modern  cold  storage 
rooms  the  year  around.  Its  hardiness,  its  productive- 
ness, the  ease  with  which  it  is  grown,  the  great  variety 
of  uses  made  of  it,  and  its  nutritive  value,  leave  it 
without  a  peer. 

In  its  original  wild  form  the  fruit  of  the  common 
apple,  Pyrus  mains,  is  small  in  size,  often  very  acid  or 
bitter  and  indigestible,  and  growing  on  thorny,  irregular 
trees.  By  favorable  natural  conditions,  or  by  cultiva- 
tion, it  has  been  improved  until  we  have  the  large, 
vigorous,  upright  tree,  entirely  free  from  thorns  and 
producing  large,  delicious  and  easily  digested  fruit. 
The  Siberian  apple  (Pyrus  baccata)  has  contributed 
something  to  the  cultivated  varieties,  as  the  common, 
yellow  and  Eed  Siberian  crab,  and  the  numerous  hybrids 
with  P.  malus,  the  Oldenburg,  Gravenstein,  Red  Astra- 
chan,  etc.,  and  the  Russian  varieties  that  have  in  the 
past  few  years  been  introduced  in  the  hope  that  they 
might  prove  hardier  in  the  extreme  North  than  the  old 
varieties.  Most  of  the  valuable  varieties,  however,  that 
are  largely  grown,  are  supposed  to  be  pure  seedlings 
from  the  first  species. 


8  SUCCESSFUL  FBUIT  CULTURE 

The  climate  and  soil  of  the  Northern  United  States 
and  of  Canada  are  peculiarly  well  adapted  to  the  growth 
of  the  apple,  and  no  country  in  the  world  can  produce 
apples  of  so  fine  quality,  so  brilliantly  colored,  or  that 
will  keep  so  long.  Our  fruit  has  almost  a  world-wide 
reputation,  and  European  and  other  countries  ought  in 
the  future  to  consume  more  and  more  of  it,  both  in  a 
fresh  or  in  some  preserved  condition.  It  is  a  fruit 
that  yields  heavy  crops,  as  many  as  twenty  barrels  hav- 
ing been  obtained  from  a  single  tree,  and  five  hundred 
barrels  have  been  produced  on  an  orchard  of  two  acres. 
Such  crops,  however,  cannot  be  grown  except  under  the 
most  favorable  condition  of  soil  and  skillful  care. 

THE    SOIL 

The  land  best  suited  to  the  growth  of  the  apple 
is  a  deep,  moist  loam,  but  it  will  produce  some  fruit 
upon  almost  any  soil,  except  one  that  is  very  wet  or 
composed  largely  of  sand.  As  with  all  other  crops  the 
margin  for  a  profit  is  small  and  one  about  to  start  into 
apple  growing  for  profit  should  carefully  investigate 
the  condition  of  soil,  and  not  invest  largely  until  well 
satisfied  that  the  land  selected  is  naturally  adapted  to 
the  growth  of  this  fruit. 

The  slope  and  exposure  of  the  land  are  of  consider- 
able importance.  High  land  is  generally  better  than 
that  situated  in  the  valleys,  though  the  soil  often  is 
not  of  as  good  quality,  but  there  is  a  good  circulation 
of  air  about  the  trees  on  the  high  land,  and  fungous 
diseases  are  not  so  troublesome,  and  late  frosts  in  the 
spring  and  early  frosts  in  the  fall  are  not  liable  to  cut 
off  the  crop.  There  is  little  choice  as  to  the  exposure 
unless  in  a  given  locality  there  is  more  danger  of  high 
winds,  when  the  trees  are  loaded  with  fruit,  from  one 
direction  than  another.  Sloping  land  is  much  more 
difficult  to  cultivate  than  level  land  and  much  of  the 


THE    APPLE 


plant  food  applied  is  likely  to  be  washed  to  the  foot 
of  the  slope,  leaving  the  tops  of  hills  with  a  small 
supply  unless  a  soil  cover  crop  is  kept  on  the  land. 


TREES    FOR    AN    ORCHARD 

The  best  stock  for  planting  is  vigorous  trees  that 
have  reached  a  medium  to  large  size  in  two  years  from 
the  bud  or  root  graft,  while  an  older  tree  is  not  so 
desirable,  on  account  of  the  number  of  roots  that  must 
necessarily  be  destroyed  in  transplanting.  A  three  or 
four-year-old  tree  has  more  vitality  and  will  stand  more 
ill  treatment  and  exposure  than  a  younger  one,  yet 
the  young  tree,  if  properly  planted  and  cared  for, 
will  start  into  growth  more  vigorously  and  in  the 
end  make  the  better  tree.  The  fibrous  roots  of  the 
young  tree  will  be  found  not  far  from  the  trunk,  while 
those  on  the  older  tree  will  each  year  be  extending 
outward,  and  as  the  distance  from  the  tree  that  •  the 
spade  is  inserted  in  digging  is  the  same  in  both  cases, 
the  fibers  of  the  older  tree  will  be  the  most  injured. 
A  very  good  plan,  followed  by  some  orchardists  who  are 
obliged  to  purchase  trees  grown  at  a  long  distance  from 
home,  is  to  buy  strong  one-year-old  trees  and  plant 
them  in  good  soil  in  their  home  nursery,  where  they 
grow  for  one  or  two  years,  and  then  dig  and  transplant 
them  to  the  orchard  with  little  or  no  exposure  of  the 
roots  to  the  sun  and  drying  air. 

If  the  planter  has  the  necessary  skill  to  grow  trees 
to  the  proper  form  after  they  are  planted  in  the  orchard, 
it  would  be  much  safer  to  set  out  stocky,  low-branched 
trees,  as  tall,  slim  ones  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  the 
hot  sun  striking  on  the  long,  slender  trunk  after  being 
removed  from  the  shelter  of  the  nursery  and  require 
considerable  time  and  skill  to  train  the  head  to  the 
proper  form. 


10  SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 

WHERE    TO    OBTAIN    TREES 

If  the  orchardist  or  planter  is  not  skilled  in  the 
art  of  growing  trees  in  the  nursery — and  some  do  not 
have  this  skill- — it  will  be  best  to  buy  trees  of  reliable 
and  long-established  nurseries  as  near  home  as  possible. 
If  possible,  the  stock  should  be  seen  in  the  nursery, 
especially  if  large  numbers  are  to  be  planted,  and  full 
understanding  be  had  as  to  how  and  when  the  trees 
are  to  be  delivered.  We  would  not  advise  the  purchase 
of  trees  from  irresponsible  nursery  agents,  for,  while 
there  are  honest  nursery  agents,  these  men,  as  a  class, 
are  generally  looked  upon  as  unprincipled,  often  because 
of  the  difficulty  in  coming  at  a  clear  understanding 
between  the  agent  and  purchaser,  which  largely  arises 
from  the  fact  that  the  agent  does  not  show  his  goods 
nor  sell  by  a  sample  even,  but  secures  his  orders  from 
gaudy  colored  plates  that  are  generally  the  most  hor- 
rible exaggerations.  In  many  cases  the  agent  is  almost 
entirely  ignorant  of  the  varieties  of  the  trees  or  plants 
he  sells  and  will  tell  almost  any  story  in  order  to  sell 
his  goods.  For  the  above  reasons  it  is  best  to  send 
orders  directly  to  reliable  nurseries,  where  one  will  be 
sure  to  receive  courteous  treatment,  and  orders  be  filled 
in  the  best  possible  manner.  The  man  who  can  care  for 
an  orchard  with  success,  who  can  grow  young  trees 
after  they  have  been  set  in  the  orchard,  can  grow  young 
trees  for  planting,  and  it  is  often  a  greater  advantage 
to  have  a  small  nursery  in  connection  with  all  large 
orchards,  though  as  a  rule  the  trained  nurseryman  can 
grow  trees  cheaper  and  better  than  the  customer. 

PREPARATION    OF    THE    LAND 

If  the  land  is  free  from  stones,  so  that  it  can  be 
easily  plowed,  it  will  pay  to  work  it  fifteen  inches  deep 
by  following  the  ordinary  plow  with  the  sole  or  trench 


THE     APPLE  11 

plow.  (Figure  2.)  This  loosens  the  subsoil  without 
bringing  it  to  the  surface,  so  .that  the  roots  can  pene- 
trate more  deeply  and  make  a  light  soil  more  retentive 
of  moisture,  and  surface-drains  a  heavy  soil,  for  a  time 
at  least.  If  the  land  is  not  naturally  in  condition  to 
produce  a  vigorous  growth  of  trees,  and  one  season's 
delay  is  possible  before  planting,  it  can  be  very  cheaply 
enriched  with  green  manure  crops,  like  soy  beans,  cow- 
peas,  oats  and  peas,  and  barley  and  peas,  or  even  rye. 
Something  like  the  following  routine  is  suggested.  In 
the  early  spring  sow  oats  and  peas  and  when  in  blossom 


Fig.  2-Sole  or  Trench  Plow 

plow  under.  About  the  middle  of  August  sow  peas  and 
barley,  which  may  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  land 
until  the  following  spring,  when  it  is  plowed  under 
and  the  trees  planted.  Another  plan  would  be  to  drill 
in  soy  beans  the  last  of  May,  to  be  plowed  under  about 
the  same  time  as  the  peas  and  oats,  this  to  be  followed 
by  peas  and  barley.  This  will  give  a  larger  amount 
of  green  manure  and  probably  enrich  the  land  more 
than  the  first. 

If  preparation  of  the  land  begins  early  in  the  fall 
and  the  trees  are  not  to  be  planted  for  a  year,  rye 


12          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

may  be  sown  in  September,  to  be  turned  under  in  June, 
and  followed  by  the  soy  beans  and  then  by  peas  and 
barley. 

Should  the  land  be  very  much  exhausted,  a  light 
dressing  of  fertilizer  may  be  necessary  with  the  first 
crop.  With  land  that  cannot  be  fitted  by  plowing,  it 
can  only  be  properly  fitted  by  digging  large  holes  in 
which  to  plant  the  trees ;  the  larger  the  space  worked  the 
better  the  trees  will  grow. 

DISTANCE     FOR    PLANTING 

Trees  that  grow  only  to  medium  size,  like  the 
Fameuse,  Ben  Davis,  Wealthy,  Sutton  and  others,  on 
poor  soil,  may  be  planted  as  near  as  25x25  or  30x30 
feet,  but  trees  of  a  larger  growth,  like  the  Baldwin, 
Gravenstein,  King,  etc.,  and  on  strong  soil,  should  bo 
planted  not  less  than  40x40  feet.  Double  thick  plant- 
ing is  largely  practiced,  i.  e.,  12  1-2x12  1-2,  15x15  and 
20x20  feet,  and  this  method  has  many  advantages.  In 
the  first  place,  the  cost  of  trees  is  a  very  small  item  in  the 
expense  of  planting  an  orchard,  while  the  crop  produced 
from  the  trees,  up  to  the  twelfth  year,  when  they  begin 
to  touch  branches,  will  often  be  a  large  item  in  paying 
the  expense  of  the  whole.  The  great  danger  in  this 
method  lies  in  the  reluctance  with  which  the  temporary 
trees  will  be  removed  when  they  begin  to  encroach 
upon  the  permanent  ones.  The  varieties  used  between 
the  permanent  trees,  called  fillers,  are  often  early 
maturing,  that  do  not  grow  to  a  large  size,  such  as  the 
Wealthy,  Ben  Davis,  Hubbardston,  etc.  By  heading 
lack  the  fillers  as  they  encroach  upon  the  permanent 
trees,  they  may  be  kept  in  condition  for  bearing  fruit 
for  twenty  years  or  more.  But  this  work  must  be  begun 
as  soon  as  the  branches  begin  to  touch  or  all  will  be 
permanently  injured.  Figure  3  shows  the  result  of 
close  planting  where  the  fillers  have  not  been  removed, 


THE    APPLE 


13 


and  Figure  4  shows   a  perfect  low-headed  tree  with 
fillers  removed. 

LAYING     OUT     AN     ORCHABD 

In  planting  an  orchard,  whether  the  land  is  to  be 
cultivated  or  not,  it  is  advisable  to  have  the  trees  in 
straight  rows  and  equal  distances,  not  only  for  beauty 


Fig.  3— Result  of  Close  Planting 

but  also  for  convenience  in  working  among  them. 
Perhaps  the  best  way  to  do  this  is  to  use  a  long,  hard- 
twisted  cord  or  a  wire  with  marks  attached  at  proper 
intervals  upon  it.  The  wire,  about  No.  14  or  16,  gal- 
vanized, with  drops  of  solder  at  intervals  of  five,  ten 
or  twenty  feet,  is  much  better  than  the  cord,  as  it  is 
not  affected  by  wet  or  dryness,  and  will  not  stretch.  The 


THE    APPLE  15 

cord  or  wire  should  be  stretched  along  two  opposite 
sides  of  the  land  and  stakes  put  at  the  proper 
distance.  Then  stretch  it  from  the  other  two  sides, 
putting  a  stake  at  every  mark.  All  measurements 
must  be  made  horizontally,  or  on  the  level,  if  the  land  is 
sloping,  otherwise  the  trees  will  be  of  unequal  distance. 
If  the  distance  of  twenty  or  forty  feet  be  laid  off  on  a 
sloping  surface,  it  will  be  found  that  the  space  between 
these  will  be  less  than  between  those  laid  out  hori- 
zontally. 

To  lay  out  an  orchard  so  that  the  stakes  shall 
be  exactly  in  line  is  a  simple  matter,  but  after  digging 
the  holes  it  is  difficult  to  put 

the  trees  all  exactly  where    ^g**  ^  "  u-^ 

the  stakes  stood  unless  the          Fig  5— Planting  Board 
planting  board,  Figure  5,  is 

used.  This  consists  of  any  straight-edged  board  with 
a  notch  in  the  center  and  one  at  each  end  equal  distances 
from  the  center.  It  should  be  long  enough  to  reach 
across  the  hole  and  should  be  placed  on  the  same  side 
of  the  stakes  for  every  hole.  Before  digging  the  holes 
for  the  trees,  the  planting  board  is  placed  with  its 
center  notch  against  the  stake,  which  is  then  pulled 
out  and  put  at  one  of  the  end  notches  and  another 
stake  put  at  the  remaining  end  notch.  The  board  can 
now  be  removed,  the  hole  dug,  taking  care  not  to 
disturb  the  stakes  or  cover  them  with  soil,  and  when 
ready  to  plant  the  tree,  the  planting  board  is  placed 
against  the  stakes  and  the  tree  against  the  center  notch, 
as  shown  in  Figure  6,  which  will  bring  it  just  where 
the  stake  stood. 

DIGGING    THE    HOLES 

If  many  trees  are  to  be  planted,  and  it  is  dry  and 
windy,  it  is  better  to  dig  as  many  holes  during  the 
middle  of  the  day  as  can  be  filled  with  trees  during 


1G  SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

the  last  two  hours  of  the  afternoon  and  the  first  two 
hours  of  the  morning,  as  the  roots  will  be  much  less 
liable  to  injury  at  this  time  than  if  planted  in  the 
hot  sun  in  the  middle  of  the  day. 

If  the  land  has  been  deeply  plowed,  the  holes 
need  be  only  large  enough  to  allow  the  spreading  of 
the  roots  in  their  natural  position;  the  size  must 
depend  upon  the  size  of  the  trees  planted. 

If  the  trees  are  to  be  planted  in  turf,  the  holes 
should  be  three  or  four  feet  across,  with  the  subsoil 
well  loosened.  The  surface  soil  should  be  thrown  in 
a  pile  by  itself,  to  be  used  for  filling  in  about  the  roots, 
and  the  subsoil  in  another  pile,  to  be  spread  upon  the 
surface  after  the  trees  have 
been  planted. 

/  If  the  soil  is  poor,  it  is 

M  necessarj'    that    some    well- 

rotted  manure,  or  fertilizer, 
be  put  with  the  soil  used 
for  filling  in  about  the  roots. 
This  should  be  thoroughly 
Fig.  6-Pianting  the  Tree  mixed  with  the  soil,  or  in- 
jury instead  of  benefit  will 

result.  If  coarse  unfermented  manure  only  is  available, 
it  should  not  "be  used  until  the  roots  have  first  been 
covered  with  two  or  three  inches  of  soil,  when  it  may 
be  mixed  with  the  remaining  soil  or  be  spread  on  the 
surface  after  the  hole  lias  been  filled.  The  amount  to 
be  used  must  be  varied  according  to  the  condition  of 
the  soil;  from  one  to  two  shovelfuls  of  fine  manure, 
or  two  to  four  handfuls  of  fine  ground  bone,  or  one 
to  two  handfuls  of  fine  ground  bone  and  potash  well 
mixed  with  the  soil. 

Proper  fertilizing  of  the  land  is  one  of  the  most 
important  conditions  of  success  in  fruit  culture.  Many 
people  will  blame  the  nurserymen  because  the  trees 


THE     APPLE  1? 

they  buy  and  plant  do  not  grow  when  there  is  little 
or  no  plant  food  in  the  soil  to  sustain  them.  One  has 
as  good  a  right  to  expect  a  crop  of  corn  from  land 
with  no  fertilizer  as  a  good  growth  of  trees  under  sim- 
ilar conditions.  If  some  of  the  people  who  fail  in 
tree  planting  from  this  cause,  could  see  the  amount 
of  manure  or  fertilizers  used  by  nurserymen  and  suc- 
cessful orchardists,  they  would  cease  to  wonder  why 
their  trees  do  no  better,  and  put  the  blame  where  it 
belongs.  On  land  that  is  naturally  rich  and  moist, 
however,  fruit  trees,  especially  the  apple  and  peach, 
will  need  little  or  no  manure  or  fertilizer  until  fruiting, 
if  the  land  is  kept  frequently  cultivated. 


PREPARING     THE     TREES     FOR     PLANTING 

It  matters  not  how  carefully  trees  may  be  dug 
from  the  nursery,  more  or  less  of  the  fine  roots  and 
all  of  the  root-hairs  will  be  injured,  and,  as  generally 
received  from  the  nurseries,  there  is 
little  to  the  trees  but  a  few  stubs  of 
roots  and  the  top,  with  its  numerous 
branches  and  buds  to  be  supplied  with 
moisture  and  food  from  this  small 
amount  of  roots.  The  consequence 
is  that  none  of  the  branches  makes 
much  growth,  or  the  evaporation  is 
so  great  from  the  large  amount  of.  the 
surface  of  the  branches  and  numerous 
buds  that  the  moisture  is  dried  out 
faster  than  it  is  supplied  by  the 
scanty  roots,  and  the  tree  dies.  To 
remedy  this  condition,  the  top  must 
be  reduced  in  proportion  to  the  injury 
to  the  roots,  as  shown  in  Figure  7, 
b  b  6  6.  The  older  and  larger  the 


7— Tree  Properly 
Headed  Up  at  Plant- 


18          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

tree,  the  more  severely  must  it  be  pruned.  The  larger 
roots  wherever  injured  should  be  cut  off  smooth,  •<&  decay 
is  more  certain  to  spread  from  a  torn  than  from  a 
smoothly  cut  surface. 

ESTABLISHING    THE    HEAD 

In   cutting   back    the   tree   to   obtain   a   balance 
between  the  roots  and  top,  the  formation  of  the  head 


Fig.  8-Well=Formed  Low-Headed  Tree,  Twelve  Years  Old 

should  be  kept  in  mind  and  all  shoots  not  needed  to 
form  the  main  branches  of  the  head  be  cut  away 
entirely.  The  trees  as  received  from  the  average  nur- 
sery have  the  main  branches  started  at  from  three  to 
four  feet  from  the  ground,  and  if  a  head  started  higher 


THE    APPLE  19 

than  this  is  desired  the  process  of  '^heading  up"  will 
require  from  one  to  three  years,  according  to  the  hight 
desired.  Figure  7  illustrates  this  process,  in  which  all 
the  branches,  &  &  b  b,  are  cut  off  close  to  the  trunk,  the 
leader  being  allowed  to  grow  and  to  produce  a  set  of 
branches  at  the  dotted  lines,  a.  The  increase  in  the 
hight  of  the  head  will  not  be  more  than  fifteen  or 
inches  each  year  and  to  start  the  main  branches 


Fig.  9-The  Same  Tree  in  Blossom 

five  feet  from  the  ground  may  require  two  or  three 
years  after  planting.  The  formation  of  a  cluster  of 
branches  at  one  point  on  the  trunk  should  be  avoided, 
as  in  time  the  tree  is  sure  to  split  down  at  the  fork. 
The  main  branches  should  start  out  from  opposite 
sides  of  the  trunk  at  intervals  of  from  five  to  ten  inches 
apart. 


20          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

Orchardists  are  now  training  their  trees  with  a 
head  much  lower  than  formerly,  because  of  the  many 
advantages  of  the  low-headed  tree.  The  pruning  is 
more  easily  done,  the  trunk  is  less  exposed  to  the  hot 
sun  and  drying  winds;  thinning  and  spraying  can  be 
more  easily  done,  the  fruit  will  be  more  easily  and 
cheaply  gathered  and  the  fruit  that  falls  to  the  ground 
will  be  less  injured  in  the  fall,  and  with  modem  tools, 
like  the  spring-tooth  harrow  or  the  cutaway  orchard 
harrow,  as  good  work  can  be  done  as  if  the  heads  were 
trained  five  or  six  feet  high.  Figure  8  illustrates  a 
well-formed  low-headed  tree  and  Figure  9  shows  the 
same  tree  in  blossom. 

TIME    FOR    PLANTING 

The  best  time  for  setting  out  apple  trees  will 
depend  somewhat  on  the  season.  When  the  trees  are 


Fig.  10-Two  Methods  of  Heeling  In 

taken  from  the  home  nursery,  or  can  be  obtained  near 
home,  so  that  they  will  be  but  a  few  hours  out  of 
the  ground,  and  when  they  ripen  their  buds  by  the  last 
of  October  or  early  November,  the  fall  is  the  best  time 
for  planting  unless  on  land  very  much  exposed  to  cold, 
drying  winds.  But  if  the  trees  grow  late  in  the  fall 
and  are  purchased  from  nurseries  at  a  long  distance 


THE    APPLE  SJ1 

from  where  they  are  to  be  planted,  it  would  be  safer 
to  plant  in  the  spring.  It  is  the  practice  of  many 
orchardists  to  purchase  trees  in  the  fall,  and  heel  them 
in,  as  shown  in  Figure  10,  where  they  will  be  protected 
during  the  winter  and  be  ready  for  early  planting  in  the 
spring.  The  soil  for  this  purpose  should  be  light  and 
porous  and  the  surface  water  should  be  prevented  from 
settling  in  about  the  roots. 

PLANTING    THE    TBEES 

Having  the  holes  dug,  the  trees  pruned  and  every- 
thing in  readiness,  the  most  important  part  of  the  work 
is  now  to  be  done.  Only  a  few  trees  should  be  exposed 
to  the  weather  at  once,  unless  on  a  moist,  cloudy 
day.  Three  men  are  required  to  do  the  work  most 
rapidly  and  thoroughly;  one  to  put  the  tree  in  place, 
spread  out  the  roots  and  press  the  soil  in  and  about 
the  roots;  and  two  with  spades,  one  of  whom  carries 
the  planting  board.  Perhaps  ten  trees  are  dropped  in 
place,  when  man  No.  1  takes  up  a  tree,  while  No.  2 
fixes  the  planting  board,  Figure  5,  with  the  end  notches 
against  the  two  stakes.  No.  1  now  places  the  trunk 
of  the  tree  against  the  middle  notch  of  the  planting 
board  and  spreads  out  the  roots  in  a  natural  position, 
while  No.  3  is  ready  to  throw  in  some  rich,  fine  surface 
soil,  working  it  in  about  the  roots  so  that  it  shall 
be  everywhere  in  contact  with  them,  and  after  being 
covered  with  three  inches  of  soil,  pressing  the  soil 
down  firmly  with  the  foot.  As  soon  as  the  tree  is  in 
its  proper  place,  No.  2  throws  his  planting  board  to 
the  next  hole,  takes  up  his  spade  and  assists  in  filling 
np  the  hole  and  leveling  off  the  surface  soil  about  the 
tree.  The  soil  should  be  pressed  very  firmly  in  contact 
with  the  roots,  but  that  on  the  surface  should  be  left 
as=  light  and  loose  as  possible. 


22          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 
LABELING 

All  trees  should  be  permanently  labeled  before 
planting,  and  a  plan  be  made  of  the  orchard  where 
every  tree  is  located  and  name  given,  so  that  if  a  label 
becomes  lost  or  disfigured,  no  difficulty  will  be  found 
in  looking  up  the  proper  name.  The  most  permanent 
label,  the  most  easily  attached  to  the  tree,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  cheapest,  consists  of  a  triangular  zinc 
strip  one-half  to  three-fourths  inch  wide  at  one  end, 
tapering  to  a  point  at  the  other,  and  five  to  six  inches 
long,  as  seen  in  Figure  11.  This  should  be  slightly 
corroded  and  the  name  written  with  a  medium-hard 
lead  pencil.  If  the  zinc  is  just  right  and  the  name 
is  written  in  a  broad  hand,  it  will  be  distinctly  visible 
for  a  lifetime.  It  is  fastened  to  the  tree  by  winding 


Fly.  11-Zinc  Label 

the  small  end  about  a  small  branch,  and  as  the  branch 
grows  the  label  is  uncoiled  and  does  not  cut  into  the 
tree.  A  very  thin  label  of  this  form  is  made  of  copper, 
the  name  being  pressed  into  it  by  a  stylo,  or  a  very 
hard  pencil.  The  names  on  the  copper  label  are  as 
permanent  as  on  those  of  zinc,  but  are  not  so  legible  nor 
the  label  so  easily  obtained. 

CULTIVATION 

The  effect  of  stirring  the  soil  after  planting  trees 
is:  first,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  moisture  by  forming 
a  layer  of  loose,  non-conducting  soil  on  the  surface ;  and 
second,  hastening  the  preparation  of  plant  food  by  the 


THE    APPLE  23 

introduction  of  air.  In  young  orchards  it  will  be  found 
most  economical  to  grow  some  hoed  crop  among  the 
tre26  for  a  few  years;  but,  as  a  rule,  such  crops  will 
not  more  than  pay  the  cost  of  cultivation  and  fertilizers 
used,  while  they  often  fall  far  short  of  this,  and  the 
owner  must  take  his  profit  in  the  increased  value  of 
his  trees.  Any  hoed  crop  may  be  used  that  does  not 
require  cultivation  during  August  and  September,  as 
cultivation  during  these  months  often  causes  a  late 
growth  of  the  trees  that  are  more  likely  to  be  injured 
than  if  they  matured  earlier.  The  corn  crop,  if  of  the 
small  stalked  kinds  and  not  planted  too  close  to  the 
trees,  is  also  a  good  crop,  but  none  of  the  small  grains 
should  be  used,  as  they  draw  so  heavily  upon  the  mois- 
ture supply  in  May  and  June  as  to  seriously  check  the 
growth  of  the  trees. 

With  the  use  of  the  modern  tools  for  orchard 
cultivation,  now  on  the  market,  the  cost  of  cultivation 
is  much  less  than  it  was  twenty  years  ago,  and  orchards 
are  more  and  more  being  cared  for  by  constant  cultiva- 
tion. The  advantages  of  this  method  are,  that  the 
roots  are  kept  deep  in  the  soil  and  are  less  liable  to 
injury  from  the  extremes  of  cold  or  drouth ;  less  plant 
food  is  needed  to  keep  up  a  vigorous  growth,  as  the 
latent  elements  in  the  soil  are  made  more  available  by 
contact  with  the  air;  the  moisture  during  dry  weather 
is  kept  in  the  soil  by  the  mulch  of  fine  soil  produced 
by  frequent  cultivation ;  the  greater  the  drouth  the  more 
frequent  should  be  the  cultivation.  There  may  be  a 
limit  to  the  number  of  times  one  can  cultivate  with 
a  profit,  but  twice  or  three  times  each  week  in  very 
dry  weather  is  none  too  frequent ;  a  more  even  temper- 
ature of  soil  is  produced  by  cultivation,  which  results 
in  a  steady  and  healthy  growth  that  is  less  liable  to 
diseases,  most  of  which  only  attack  trees  in  a  weakened 
condition. 


24          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

It  is  the  practice  of  many  orchardists  to  keep  the 
land  in  turf  for  a  series  of  years,  then  to  plow  and 
cultivate  for  a  year  or  two  and  reseed,  but  better 
results  will  be  obtained  by  constant  cultivation,  because 
the  roots  are  kept  well  in  the  ground,  while  after  they 
have  stood  in  turf  for  several  years  they  work  close 
to  the  surface  and  are  seriously  torn  and  cut  when 
the  land  is  plowed  again.  A  heavy  mulching  of  the 
ground,  close  to  the  trunks  of  the  trees,  during  the 
summer,  has  the  same  effect,  but  if  once  begun  must 
be  kept  up  or  the  trees  will  be  injured  by  cold  or 
drouth  when  the  mulch  decays. 

IMPLEMENTS     FOR     CULTIVATION 

The  plow  is  an  indispensable  implement  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  orchard.  It  is  needed  for  turning 

under  green  ma- 
nuring or  cover 
crops  and  where 
weeds  have  be- 
come too  large  to 
be  uprooted  by 

Fig.  12-Low-Hangtae  Landside  Plow  thf      halTOW      °P 

cultivator.     This 

tool  should  never  oe  run  so  deep  as  to  go  under  the 
roots,  and  the  furrows  should  not  be  turned  the  same 
way  every  time,  so  as  to  form  ridges  along  the  line  of 
the  trees  or  to  draw  the  soil  too  much  away  from  the 
roots.  On  sloping  land,  where  a  ridge  is  likely  to  be 
formed  along  the  line  of  the  trees,  it  is  well  to  turn 
the  furrows  uphill  to  overcome  this  tendency.  A  low-' 
hanging  landside  plow,  like  the  one  shown  in  Figure 
12,  will  do  much  better  work  than  will  a  sidehill  plow. 
The  wheel  harrow  of  the  common  or  cutaway  form, 
Figure  13,  is  now  made  with  a  long  arm  or  spreader 
by  which  the  shears  are  carried  under  the  branches 


THE    APPLE 


25 


of  the  tree,  while  the  horses  and  the  driver  are  in 
the  space  outside.  The  California  orchard  harrow, 
Figure  14,  will  be  found  to  be  very  serviceable  on 
heavy  land. 

The  spring-tooth  harrow,  of  which  there  are  many 
forms,  is  one  of  the  best  tools  for  keeping  the  soil  of 


Pig.  13— Cutaway  Wheel  Harrow 

an  orchard  in  fine  condition  and  killing  weeds,  because 
of  the  lifting  effect  of  the  teeth  upon  the  soil,  which 
leaves  the  surface  more  loose  and  lighter  than  any  other 
tool.  By  separating  the  sections  with  a  spreader,  Figure 
15,  or  by  hitching 
the  team  to  one 
side,  or  by  a 
special  evener,  the 
teeth  are  carried 
well  under  the 
branches,  and  by 
turning  the  horses 
in  a  circle  around 
the  trees,  the  har- 
row will  be  drawn 
so  close  up  to  the 
trunks  that  little  or  no  hand  cultivating  need  be  done. 
Handles  or  a  strong  rope  should  be  attached  to  this 
harrow  to  assist  in  guiding  it,  so  as  not  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  trees. 


Fig.  14-California  Orchard  Harrow 


26  SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

The  smoothing  harrow  and  weeders  can  often  be 
used  to  good  advantage  after  the  plow,  or  the  wheel  or 
spring-toothed  harrows.  Figure  16  shows  the  grape 
hoe,  with  spring-teeth  attachment,  also  a  valuable 


Fig.  1 5— Spring-Tooth  Harrow 


tool,  working  close  up  to  the  trees  without  injury.  The 
weeders,  Figure  17,  are  especially  valuable  in  keeping  a 
fine  tilth  of  the  surface  soil,  as  they  cover  a  wide  space 
and  can  be  more  easily  guided  than  the  smoothing  har- 
row. They  must  be  used  frequently  in  order  to  keep 


Fig.  16— The  drape  Hoe 


down  weeds.    Weeders  with  straight  teeth  do  better 
work  in  orchards  than  those  with  curved  teeth. 

Only  the  most  careful  men  who  are  skillful  team- 
sters should  be  allowed  to  work  in  an  orchard  with. 


THE    APPLE 


any  of  the  above  mentioned  tools,  for  careless  or  un- 
skilled men  will  often  do  more  injury  in  an  hour  than 
can  be  repaired  in  years  of  time. 


TURF     CULTURE 

In  nearly  every  apple  growing  State  of  the  Union 
there  are  thousands  upon  thousands  of  acres  of  land 
too  rough  and  stony  to  be  cultivated  and  upon  which 
may  often  be  found  large  apple  trees  remarkable  for 
their  vigor  and  productiveness.  The  fruit  produced 
upon  such  land  is  noted  for  its  high  color,  rich  flavor 
and  long  keeping  qualities.  Much  of  this  land  is  almost 
worthless  for  any 
other  purpose 
than  forestry  and 
the  production  of 
apples ;  and  if 
properly  planted 
with  apple  trees 
and  cared  for,  it 
would,  in  a  few 
years,  give  a 
large  income  for 
the  investment.  By  this  method,  particular  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  selection  of  the  land,  using  good 
apple  land,  to  the  preparation  of  the  soil  directly  about 
the  tree,  and  to  cutting  and  utilizing  the  material,  such 
as  sedges,  brakes,  small  brush,  etc.,  that  grows  upon  the 
land  as  a  mulch,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  moisture  and 
plant  food  that  is  being  rapidly  carried  away  during 
the  summer  by  such  growths. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  system  are,  that 
the  trees  mature  their  wood  earlier  in  the  fall  and 
consequently  are  less  liable  to  injury  than  where  con- 
stantly cultivated.  The  roots  are  protected  from  tho 


Fig.  I7-A  Weeder 


28  SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 

extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  the  cost  of  land  is  much 
less  and  the  fruit  is  more  firm,  of  better  color  and 
quality  and  will  keep  longer. 

While  upon  land  that  can  be  easily  cultivated 
greater  profit  will  probably  be  obtained  by  thorough 
and  clean  cultivation,  the  first  cost  of  land  is  generally 
many  times  greater  than  that  of  land  equally  rich  and 
well  located  that  cannot  be  cultivated,  and  there  are 
many  notable  instances  where  successful  and  profitable 
orchards  have  been  grown  under  such  conditions.  In 
many  sections  of  our  country  our  farmers  and  fruit 
growers  are  land  poor,  i.  e.,  they  have  more  land  than 
they  can  care  for  at  a  profit  with  the  capital  in  hand, 
and  the  first  point  they  should  make,  if  about  to 
enter  into  apple  growing,  is  to  find  land  suited  to  the 
growth  of  that  fruit.  If  it  can  be  cultivated  easily 
there  will  be  the  most  profit  if  it  be  thoroughly  culti- 
vated, but  if  too  rough  and  rocky  for  cultivation,  profit- 
able crops  can  still  be  grown  by  applying  plant  food 
to  the  trees  and  keeping  the  grass,  sedges,  brakes,  etc., 
cut  so  that  they  shall  not  carry  away  the  moisture  or 
plant  food  in  their  growth. 

I  wish  to  repeat  here,  however,  what  is  said  on 
another  page,  that  whatever  system  is  followed,  success 
will  be  obtained  only  when  an  abundance  of  plant  food 
is  provided,  and  the  cheapest  and  best  method  of  sup- 
plying this  must  be  determined  by  each  grower ;  whether 
by  the  use  of  the  cultivator  or  harrow  and  a  moderate 
amount  of  plant  food,  or  by  the  application  of  an 
abundance  of  plant  food  and  the  frequent  cutting  of 
the  grass  or  mulch  material  found  growing  about  the 
trees.  The  amount  of  fertilizers  to  be  used  can  only 
be  determined  by  a  careful  study  of  the  trees,  but 
enough  must  be  applied  to  produce  from  six  to  ten  inches 
of  new  wood  each  year. 


THE    APPLE  29 


FERTILIZING    AND    CARE    OF    ORCHARD 

Stable  manure  may  always  be  used  upon  fruit 
trees,  if  properly  applied,  but  it  may  do  much  harm 
if  improperly  used.  It  should  be  applied  sparingly  to 
young  trees,  unless  the  land  is  very  poor,  or  an  exhaust- 
ing crop  is  to  be  taken  from  the  land  that  will  feed 
largely  upon  the  elements  that  tend  to  a  coarse,  woody 
growth,  i.  e.,  the  nitrogenous  elements.  The  best  time 
to  apply  stable  manure  is  in  the  fall  or  winter,  on 
land  that  does  not  wash  badly,  or  if  very  sloping  it 
should  be  put  on  very  early  in  the  spring.  Applied 
at  this  time  the  elements  of  plant  food  are  made  avail- 
able by  the  action  of  the  frosts  and  an  abundance  of 
moisture  in  the  early  season  of  the  growth  of  the  trees, 
while  if  applied  late  in  the  spring  the  food  is  not  made 
available  until  the  middle  of  the  summer  and  a  late, 
coarse  growth  is  produced  that  is  liable  to  injury  by 
cold  or  disease. 

When  trees  reach  maturity  and  are  bearing  heavy 
crops  of  fruit,  stable  manure  may  be  applied  more 
freely,  especially  in  the  spring  of  the  bearing  year, 
for  unless  an  abundance  of  plant  food  is  supplied  trees 
are  often  seriously  injured  by  overbearing,  particularly 
should  the  season  prove  a  dry  one.  Such  trees  are  in 
the  condition  of  the  overloaded  and  ill-fed  horse  or 
the  overworked  laborer,  they  are  alike  more  liable  to 
the  attacks  of  contagious  diseases  than  if  more  fully 
nourished.  Trees  that  have  been  injured  by  overbear- 
ing may  be  improved  very  much  by  the  application 
of  nitrogenous  manures  the  non-fruiting  year.  The 
effect  of  such  an  application  at  this  time  is  to  stimu- 
late the  growth  of  the  wood  and  lessen  the  development 
of  the  fruit  buds. 

This  illustrates  a  law  that  we  find  throughout  all 
life,  both  animal  and  plant,  that  the  causes  or  condi- 


30          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

tions  that  increase  the  vigor  of  the  stock  or  body 
decrease  the  reproductive  forces,  while  with  a  decrease 
in  the  vigor  of  the  body  the  reproductive  forces  are 
increased.  Herein  is  a  wise  provision  of  nature  for 
the  perpetuation  or  preservation  of  species;  for  when 
the  stock  or  body  is  vigorous  there  is  no  necessity  for 
immediate  provision  for  the  future,  but  when  the  stock 
becomes  weak  nature  makes  an  unusual  effort  to  per- 
petuate the  species  by  an  increase  of  the  reproductive 
powers. 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  the  fruit  grower 
meets  in  his  business  is  that  of  obtaining  the  necessary 
amount  of  plant  food  to  produce  his  crops.  This  prob- 
lem is  being  solved  in  a  measure  by  the  large  amount 
of  commercial  manures  offered  in  our  markets.  Stable 
manure  is  not  a  complete  fertilizer.  It  contains  a 
larger  per  cent  of  nitrogenous  elements  than  those  of 
the  mineral,  and  to  produce  a  complete  growth  must  be 
supplemented  by  adding  potash  and  phosphoric  acid. 
The  kind  of  commercial  fertilizer  or  manure  that 
gives  the  best  results  in  fruit  growing  to  supplement 
stable  manure  or  to  be  used  alone,  is  fine  ground  fresh 
bones  and  potash.  The  best  grades  of  bone  contain 
sufficient  nitrogen  for  most  soils,  but  are  deficient  in 
potash,  and  if  the  land  is  very  poor,  potash  and  some 
other  nitrogenous  manure  should  be  added,  like  nitrate 
of  soda,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  stable  manure,  etc. 

For  an  acre  of  apple  trees  (forty  trees),  over  ten 
years  of  age,  the  following  formula  will  give  good 
results,  varying  the  quantity  according  to  the  condition 
of  the  soil,  the  growth  of  the  trees  and  whether  they 
are  producing  a  crop  of  fruit  or  not  the  season  of 
application : 

250  to  500  pounds  fine  ground  bone 
100  to  300  pounds  sulphate  of  potash 
50  to  150  pounds  nitrate  of  soda 


THE    APPLE  31 

Hardwood  ashes,  at  the  rate  of  from  one  to  two 
tons  per  acre,  with  the  same  amount  of  fine  ground 
bone,  as  in  the  above  formula,  will  often  give  as  good 
results.  Another  formula  that  would  give  good  results 
under  most  conditions  is 

400  to  GOO  pounds  South  Carolina  rock  (fine  ground) 
100  to  300  pounds  sulphate  of  potash 
100  to  300  pounds  nitrate  of  soda 

An  application  of  air  slaked  lime  at  the  rate  of 
from  one-half  to  one  ton  per  acre  will  sometimes  produce 
remarkable  results,  especially  where  nitrate  of  soda  is 
used,  or  if  the  soil  is  well  supplied  with  organic  matter. 

If  the  soil  be  very  poor,  as  indicated  by  the  slow 
growth  of  the  trees,  more  nitrate  of  soda  or  some  stable 
manure  must  be  used.  If  the  land  is  rich  and  the 
trees  are  making  a  large  growth  of  wood,  use  only  bone 
and  potash  or  wood  ashes.  The  effect  of  the  nitrogenous 
elements  is  to  increase  the  leaf  action  of  the  plant  and  to 
a  large  development  of  wood;  that  of  the  potash  to 
cause  a  large  development  of  starch  and  sugar  in  the 
plant  and  fruit;  while  the  phosphoric  acid  tends  to  a 
large  development  of  the  seed  or  fruit. 

As  with  stable  manure,  the  best  time  to  apply 
fertilizers  is  late  in  the  winter  or  very  early  spring, 
before  growth  begins,  except  those  containing  quickly 
soluble  nitrates,  as  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  ammo- 
nia, etc.,  which  should  be  put  on  just  as  growth  begins 
in  the  spring,  and  in  some  cases  where  growth  is  weak 
or  when  a  large  crop  of  fruit  is  to  be  matured,  during 
the  early  summer. 

The  above  formulas  may  be  varied  by  the  grower 
from  season  to  season,  but  not  far  from  the  above 
amounts  will  be  needed  to  keep  a  good  growth  under 
average  conditions.  Bearing  trees,  to  produce  a  good 
crop  of  fruit  and  not  become  exhausted,  should  make 
a  new  growth,  as  previously  stated,  of  from  six  inches 


32  SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 

to  one  foot  on  the  leading  shoots.  If  they  make  more 
than  this  growth,,  less  fertilizer  should  be  applied,  if 
less  growth  is  made,  then  apply  more  fertilizer. 

GREEN     MANURING    OR    COVER     CROPS 

To  supply  organic  matter  to  the  soil,  to  retain 
moisture  and  to  gain  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  also  to 
protect  the  roots  from  severe  cold  during  the  winter 
or  drouth  in  summer,  it  is  the  practice  of  some  orchard- 
ists  to  grow  green  manuring  or  cover  crops  in  their 
orchards.  The  plants  most  used  for  this  purpose  arc 
rye,  oats,  barley  and  the  leguminous  plants,  peas,  field 
beans,  soy  beans,  cowpeas,  crimson  clover,  alsike,  the 
common  red  clover,  etc.  For  the  general  purposes  of 
fertilization  the  leguminous  plants  are  the  most  val- 
uable, from  the  fact  that  they  organize  nitrogen  from 
the  air  while  other  plants  only  take  what  nitrogen  they 
find  already  stored  up  in  the  soil. 

The  value  of  any  green  crop  for  an  orchard  depends 
upon -the  amount  and  composition  of  the  crop  and  the 
time  when  it  makes  its  growth  and  can  be  turned  under. 
If  the  crop  makes  its  growth  during  the  latter  part  of 
May  and  June,  as  with  rye  and  spring  sown  oats,  and 
the  clovers,  the  trees  are  often  seriously  injured  by  loss 
of  plant  food  and  moisture  when  they  most  need  it, 
especially  in  a  dry  season. 

Rye  sown  the  last  of  August,  and  peas  and  oats 
sown  very  early  in  the  spring,  will  be  in  condition  to 
turn  under  by  the  last  of  May  and,  if  the  season  is 
fairly  moist,  will  prove  very  satisfactory,  but  should 
the  season  prove  a  dry  one,  serious  injury  may  follow. 
Of  the  other  grain  crops, 

Barley,  sown  not  later  than  the  middle  of  August 
with  about  equal  quantity  of  Canada  or  field  peas  (one 
and  one-half  bushels  of  each  if  sown  broadcast),  makes 
a  good  cover  crop  and  utilizes  the  nitrogen  of  the  soil 


THE     APPLE  33 

and  air  until  late  in  the  season,  covers  the  land  during 
the  winter  and  supplies  a  large  amount  of  organic  mat- 
ter to  be  turned  under  in  the  spring — April  or  early 
May — when  we  can  work  the  land  more  easily  and 
profitably  than  if  done  later  in  the  season  and  perhaps 
with  the  greatest  profit  to  the  trees. 

Soy  beans  and  cow  peas  produce  a  large  amount  of 
organic  matter  and  collect  much  nitrogen  from  the 
atmosphere,  but  they  must  be  grown  during  the  hot 
weather  of  summer,  and  do  not  grow  and  absorb  nitro- 
gen from  the  atmosphere  or  save  that  in  the  soil  from 
being  lost  after  the  first  frost  in  the  autumn  as  do 
peas  planted  with  barley.  If  the  seed  is  drilled  in  about 
the  middle  of  August,  the  land  kept  cultivated  and 
the  frosts  hold  off  until  the  middle  or  last  of  September, 
a  good  quantity  of  organic  matter  may  be  produced  by 
these  crops  and  no  injury  be  done  to  the  trees,  but  if 
grown  through  July  and  August  and  the  season  is  dry, 
the  trees  would  be  seriously  injured.  The  cover  crops 
should  be  allowed  to  lie  on  the  land  during  the  winter 
if  it  is  hilly  to  prevent  washing. 

All  of  the  clovers  make  their  main  growth  during 
the  months  of  May  and  June,  and  in  thin  soils  are  less 
valuable  than  crops  that  make  their  growth  in  the  fall. 
But  on  land  not  subject  to  drouth  clovers  are  especially 
valuable,  as  they  take  their  nitrogen  largely  from  the  air 
and  save  such  as  may  be  developing  in  the  soil  during 
the  fall  and  early  spring  that  would  be  lost  with  a 
dead  crop,  like  soy  beans,  cowpeas,  or  even  peas  and 
barley.  As  some  of  the  nitrogen  may  be  released 
during  the  month  of  May,  trees  will  not  be  as  much 
injured  by  the  clover  crops,  however,  as  they  would  be 
with  rye  or  spring  sown  oats. 

Field  beans  are  grown  in  many  orchards  as  a  field 
crop,  and  if  planted  with  a  machine,  and  harvested, 
threshed  and  cleaned  cheaply,  will  prove  profitable,  but 


o-i  SUCCESSFUL     FHUIT     CULTURE 

frequent  cultivation  during  the  early  summer  must  be 
given,  and  as  ordinarily  grown  the  profit  is  more  likely 
to  come  from  the  increased  value  of  the  orchard  crop 
than  from  the  crop  of  beans.  The  haulm  or  stalks  of 
the  bean  could  be  spread  evenly  over  the  land  after 
the  beans  are  threshed  out,  and  be  plowed  under,  or  be 
worked  in  with  a  wheel  harrow  and  add  much  to  its 
ability  to  carry  out  a  large  crop  of  fruit.  All  things 
considered,  the  author  prefers  Canada  peas  and  barley 
as  a  cover  crop.  Figure  18  shows  a  cover  crop  of 
peas  and  barley  in  winter  with  no  snow  cover  on  the 
land. 

MULCHING 

Without  water  in  the  soil,  no  fertilizer  or  manure 
will  have  much  effect  upon  plant  growth;  and  upon 
soils  that  are  liable  to  injury  from  drouth,  mulching  in 
some  form  must  be  resorted  to.  In  the  cultivation  of 
the  land,  the  fine,  loose  layer  of  soil  on  top  forms  a 
most  effectual  mulch.  This  kind  of  a  mulch  is  much 
to  be  preferred  with  perennial  crops  like  the  fruits,  to 
hay,  straw  or  any  other  mulch  of  organic  matter, 
because  the  roots  are  kept  deep  in  the  soil  where  they 
are  not  as  liable  to  injury  from  drouth  or  extreme  cold 
in  winter. 

If  a  mulch  of  hay  or  other  organic  matter  is  used, 
the  layer  of  moist  soil  is  formed  just  under  the  mulch, 
and  when  this  decays,  as  it  will  in  a  year  or  two,  it  leaves 
the  roots  of  the  trees  so  near  the  surface  as  to  be 
seriously  injured  by  the  first  dry  season  or  a  very  severe 
winter.  This  kind  of  a  mulch  is  often  employed  while 
the  fruit  is  ripening,  with  such  varieties  as  the  Graven- 
stein,  Williams  and  others  that  do  not  color  until  nearly 
ripe,  the  falling  fruit  being  gathered  each  morning. 
This  is  the  practice  of  Mr.  Samuel  Hartwell  of  Lincoln, 
Mass.,  on  his  Gravenstein  farm,  where  2000  bushels  of 


THE     APPLE 


35 


this  variety  have  been  harvested  in  this  way  in  one  sea- 
son, bringing  the  highest  prices  in  the  Boston  markets. 
Unless  the  mulch  is  to  be  kept  up  the  hay  should  be 
removed  from  the  ground  as  soon  as  the  crop  has  been 


Fig.  18— Canada  Peas  and  Barley  aa  a  Cover  Crop 

gathered,  or  a  late  growth  of  the  trees  will  result  that 
may  cause  the  winter  injury  to  the  bark,  so  common  to 
this  variety. 

PRUNING 

No  one  subject  connected  with  fruit  growing  is 
more  discussed  in  our  agricultural  and  horticultural 
papers  than  that  of  pruning,  and  upon  none  is  there 


36  SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

a  greater  variety  of  practice  and  more  abuse.  An 
orchard  may  be  ruined  at  the  start  with  very  little 
pruning  if  not  properly  done,  or  it  may  be  put  into 
condition  to  produce  good  results  with  an  equally  small 
amount  of  pruning  if  it  be  rightly  done. 

The  first  year  after  the  tree  is  planted  it  must 
have  constant  care.  It  is  like  a  child,  its  first  years  of 
training  determine  its  character  or  form.  After  the 
main  branches  have  become  fixed,  as  illustrated  in 
Figure  7,  all  the  pruning  the  trees  require  is  to  give 
symmetry  and  regular  outline  to  the  head  by  pinching 
off  the  ends  of  those  shoots  that  tend  to  outgrow  the 
main  branches  and  to  remove  such  as  are  likely  to  be 
injured  by  rubbing  together,  or  that  are  so  thick  as 
to  interfere  with  good  growth  and  ease  in  gathering 
the  fruit. 

While  young  the  trees  should  be  allowed  to  grow 
with  a  rather  close  head,  to  protect  the  slender  branches 
from  the  hot  sun  and  air.  When  they  begin  to  bear, 
the  weight  of  fruit  will  bend  down  the  branches  and 
open  the  head,  so  that  all  the  sunlight  and  air  that  is 
needed  for  the  perfection  of  the  foliage  and  fruit  will 
enter ;  and  a  large  crop  of  perfect  fruit  cannot  be  borne 
on  a  tree  without  a  large  amount  of  foliage.  The  largest 
and  best  fruit  is  always  borne  upon  those  trees  that 
have  the  largest  and  most  perfect  foliage.  During  the 
first  five  years  of  the  tree's  life,  and  perhaps  longer,  all 
the  pruning  needed  can  be  done  with  the  thumb  and 
finger  and  the  pocket  knife,  but  as  the  trees  grow  older, 
unless  the  work  has  been  very  skillfully  followed  up, 
more  severe  pruning  may  be  needed.  Figure  8  illus- 
trates a  perfect  tree,  Figure  9  the  same  in  bloom. 

The  cutting  of  large  branches  should  be  avoided, 
if  possible,  for  " every  blow  struck  at  the  tree  will  cer- 
tainly, in  so  much,  shorten  its  life."  It  is  true  that 
severe  pruning  of  the  orchard  in  the  winter  or  early 


THE    APPLE 


37 


spring  often  results  in  a  great  increase  in  the  size  and 
quality  of  the  fruit  the  following  season  and  conse- 
quently many  growers  think  they  must  prune  their 
trees  annually.  The  result  of  cutting  off  a  large  quan- 
tity of  the  branches  at  one  time  is  to  greatly  decrease 
the  number  of  buds,  and  consequently  those  remaining 
having  the  same  amount  of  the  root  force  the  whole  tree 
would  have  had,  will  grow  more  rapidly,  the  foliage  be 
more  vigorous  and  the  fruit  larger  and  better,  but  if 
pruning  is  to  be  depended  upon  for  an  increase  in  size 
of  fruit,  only  a  few  annual  prunings  could  be  given  the 
trees  before  they  would  be  destroyed. 

It  is  generally  better  to  put  the  labor  often  ex- 
pended in  pruning  into  thinning  and  spraying  the  fruit 
when  the  trees  are  overloaded,  or  the  cost  of  this  work 
into  fertilizers,  by  which 
means  a  permanently  in- 
creased vigor  of  the  tree 
would  result  and  much  better 
fruit  would  be  produced. 
From  this  statement  I  would 
not  have  the  reader  think 
that  no  pruning  is  needed 
after  the  trees  begin  to  bear, 
for  constant  care  is  needed 
and  more  or  less  pruning 
must  be  done  to  keep  the 
trees  in  good  condition  to 
produce  large  crops  of  good 
fruit,  but  many  orchards  have  been  ruined  in  a  very 
short  time  by  pruning.  Figure  19  illustrates  a  tree 
too  severely  pruned,  yet  such  is  often  to  be  found.  In 
the  frontispiece  may  be  seen  a  tree  in  perfect  condition. 
The  following  are  some  good  rules  for  pruning  fruit 
trees,  subject,  of  course,  to  slight  changes  under  vary- 
ing conditions: 


PIj.  19— Tree  Pruned  Too 

Severely 


38 


SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 


1.  To  improve  the  form  of  trees  that  become  one- 
sided from  the  influence  of  prevailing  winds  or  other 
causes,  they  should  be  pruned  at  the  ends  of  the  branches, 

shortening  in  those 
that  are  outgrowing 
their  neighbors.  Cut- 
ting off  end  shoots 
tends  to  an  increased 
growth  of  the  lateral 
branches  and  a  close 
head;  too  much  head- 
ing in  may  be  done, 
but  more  orchardists 

Prune.  to°  much  fr°m 

the    inside    and    too 


Fig.  20-Drooping  Branche. 


little  from  the  outside.  Figure  4  shows  a  perfectly 
formed  tree  twenty-five  years  old.  Figure  8  shows  a 
perfectly  formed  tree  twelve  years  old,  pruned;  Figure 
9  the  same  in  bloom. 

2.  If  we  insist  on  training  our  trees  high  enough  to 
enable  the  team  to  drive  close  up 
to  the  base,  the  cutting  of  large 
branches  from  the  main  trunk  is 
sometimes  necessary;  but  this 
result  may  generally  be  avoided 
by  cutting  the  drooping  ends  as 
in  Figure  20,  a  a,  at  the  dotted 
lines.  If  large  branches  must  be 
cut  off,  the  cut  should  be  made 
at  dotted  line  I,  Figure  21,  and 
not  on  line  a.  As  has  been  pre- 
viously stated,  the  practice  of 
many  of  the  best  orchardists  is  to 
train  the  trees  low  and  depend  upon  the  modern 
orchard  harrows  to  keep  the  land  cultivated  under 
them. 


g.  21-Manner  of  Cut- 
ting  Large  Branches 


THE    APPLE 


3.  To  enable  the  pickers  to  gather  the  fruit  easily 
it   is    the    common    practice    to    thin    out    the    inside 
branches  and  to  cut  out  all  suckers  or  water  sprouts. 
This  may  be  done  to  a  certain  extent,  but  only  upon 
branches  that  cross  others,  as  seen  in  Figure  22,  so  as 
to  injure  one  another.    All  branches  that  rest  on  those 
below  them  so  as  to  shut  out  the  sunlight  too  much, 
and  all  suckers  that  grow  up  into  an  already  close 
head,  should  be  cut  away,  and  no  more.    A  tree  to  pro- 
duce a  large  crop  of  apples  must  have  a  large  full 
head,  and  when  there 

is  space  above  the 
(suckers  that  is  not 
well  filled  with 
branches  one  or  more 
of  these  sprouts  should 
be  allowed  to  grow, 
for  trees  are  often 
more  injured  by  cut- 
ting away  the  'shoots 
and  exposing  the 

hranrhps     to     thp     hot  Fi*  22-Crosstag  Branches,  the  Dotted 
branches     tO     tne     hot  Line  a  Showing  Where  to  Cut 

sun  and  drying  winds 

than  by  no  pruning.    A  good  time  to  cut  off  the  surplus 

suckers  is  in  the  early  summer,  when  they  may  be 

removed  with  the  thumb  and  finger  or  with  the  pocket 

knife. 

4.  The  removal  of  dead  branches  is  always   in 
order,  but  if  the  trees  have  been  properly  cared  for, 
fertilized,  sprayed  and  not  allowed  to  overbear,  these 
should  not  appear  until   the  trees  are  of  great  age. 
Dead  branches  are  an  indication  of  neglect  or  improper 
conditions  of  soil,  and  while  pruning  away  such  will 
not  remove  the  cause,  an  orchard  looks  much  better 
where  any  such  blemishes  are  removed  very  soon  after 
they  appear.     The  best  time  to  remove  dead  branches 


40  SUCCESSFUL    FRUIT    CULTURE 

is  while  the  foliage  is  upon  the  trees,  as  they  can  be 
more  easily  detected  at  this  time. 

5.  Eemove  the  weaker  of  two  branches  that  are 
rubbing  together. 

G.  If  one  branch  rests  upon  another,  the  weaker 
of  the  two  should  be  removed. 

Covering  Wounds — All  cuts  over  one-half  inch  in 
diameter  should  be  covered  with  some  preservative  as 


Pig.  23— Pruning  Saw 


soon  as  the  surface  is  dry,  to  prevent  the  decay  of  the 
wood.  Among  the  materials  used  are  linseed  oil  paint, 
gas  tar,  shellac,  grafting  wax,  etc.  All  are  good,  but  the 
first  two  of  them  being  cheap  and  easily  obtained,  are 
perhaps  the  best  preservatives  and  most  commonly  used. 


Fig.  24— Paragon  Saw 


Gas  tar  should  not  be  used  too  freely  on  young 
trees,  nor  over  more  space  than  the  injured  part,  for 
if  it  spreads  over  the  surface  it  may  kill  the  adjoining 
tissue  and  do  more  harm  than  good.  White  lead  mixed 
with  linseed  oil  and  colored  with  a  little  lampblack, 
chrome  green  and  brown  or  red,  will  make  a  color  almost 
like  the  bark  of  the  tree. 

Implements     for     Pruning — For     cutting     large 
branches  the  saw  should  always  be  used,  as  it  makes 


THE    APPLE 


41 


a  wound  that  can  be  easily  covered.  The  axe  should 
never  be  used  for  this  purpose,  as  with  each  blow  the 
wood  is  split  in  toward  the  center  and  a  much  larger 
wound  made  than  when  the  saw  is  used.  When  large 
branches  are  cut  off,  the  saw  should  be  placed  on  the 
under  side  and  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  of  the 
thickness  be  cut  here  before  the  cut  is  made  from  the 
upper  side,  by  which  means 
splitting  down  or  tearing  off 
the  bark  is  prevented. 

Many  forms  of  saws  are 
offered,  but  those  with  a 
long,  slender  blade  (Figure 
23)  are  best,  as  they  may 
be  used  when  two  branches 
come  together,  or  they  can 
be  attached  to  a  pole  for 
cutting  off  small  branches  or 
suckers  at  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  ground.  The 
Paragon  curved  saw,  Figure 
24,  with  the  teeth  on  the 
inner  curve  facing  the 
handle  and  those  on  the 
outer  curve  facing  the  point, 
is  better  than  the  straight 
form,  as  no  pressing  down 
upon  the  saw  is  required, 
only  pushing  or  pulling  to  cause  the  teeth  to  cut  into 
the  wood.  Most  of  the  saws  of  this  kind  in  the  market 
have  six  or  eight  teeth  to  the  inch,  which  causes  them 
to  cut  slowly,  while  if  they  had  five  teeth  to  the  inch 
they  would  cut  much  faster. 

The  pruning  hook  (Figure  25)  is  a  very  useful 
tool,  as  with  it  small  branches  at  the  ends  of  the  tree 
can  be  removed  without  using  the  ladder  to  reach  them. 


Pig.  25-Pruoing  Hook 


42          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

For  very  heavy  work,  as  cutting  off  branches  one  inch  or 
more  in  diameter,  a  larger  hook  may  be  made  by  any 
good  blacksmith  or  machinist  with  a  pole  ten  to  twelve 
feet  in  length. 

Pruning  shears  (Figure  26)  are  indispensable  in 
the  care  of  the  orchard,  as  is  also  the  pruning  knife, 
which  should  be  of  good  material  and  be  kept  where 
they  will  not  rust;  for  such  tools  often  rust  out  more 
quickly  than  they  wear  out. 

Time  for  Pruning — In  this  work  we  must  keep  in 
mind  the  rule  practiced  by  most  skilled  orchardists  that 


Fig.  26— Pruning 


"we  prune  while  the  tree  is  dormant  to  increase  growth, 
while  we  prune  when  the  trees  are  in  foliage  to  reduce 
growth."  In  very  few  cases,  if  ever,  do  we  find  it 
necessary  to  check  the  growth  of  our  trees,  and  therefore 
we  would  prune  only  from  November  to  May.  If  we 
prune  in  the  early  winter  the  wound  remains  uncovered 
and  dries  in  more  deeply  than  if  the  work  is  done  in 
March  or  April,  and  for  this  reason  the  author  prefers 
the  latter  time. 

It  is  the  practice  of  many  orchardists  when  large 
branches  are  to  be  removed  to  cut  them  off,  leaving  the 
stubs  from  four  to  six  inches  long,  and  then  in  May  or 
June  to  cut  them  close  to  the  main  branch  or  trunk, 
when  the  wound  will  heal  over  more  rapidly  than  at  any 


THE    APPLE  43 

other  time.  This  is  a  very  good  practice,  but  it  is 
so  difficult  to  find  time  during  the  rush  of  early  sum- 
mer work  that  the  author  prefers  to  do  the  work  all 
at  once  and  have  it  out  of  the  way. 

THINNING     FRUIT 

No  grower  can  expect  to  produce  large  and  fine 
fruit,  of  good  color  and  quality,  if  his  trees  are  allowed 
to  overbear,  as  most  varieties  will  surely  do  if  the  fruit 
is  not  thinned.  It  seems  like  a  great  undertaking  to 
go  over  large  trees,  and  this  is  the  strongest  argument 
for  low-headed  trees,  but  the  work  can  be  done  very 
rapidly  by  help  who  gain  a  little  skill  in  the  work. 
All  imperfect  or  wormy  fruit  is  picked  and  dropped  to 
the  ground,  and  if  the.  tree  has  set  a  large  quantity  of 
fruit  no  two  apples  should  be  nearer  than  three  inches 
apart. 

The  great  advantages  of  thinning  are:  (1)  All 
worms  in  the  fruit  picked  off  are  destroyed.  (2)  No  poor 
fruit  will  have  to  be  picked  and  sorted.  (3)  The  trees 
will  not  be  as  much  weakened  in  maturing  one-half 
or  one-third  the  crop  as  if  it  carried  the  whole.  (4)  The 
fruit  will  be  much  larger,  of  better  color  and  quality, 
and  the  remaining  fruit  will  grow  so  much  larger  that 
the  quantity  will  be  equal  to  the  whole  unthinned  crop 
and  bring  a  much  larger  price. 

The  cost  of  thinning  must  vary  very  much  with 
the  size  and  the  hight  of  the  trees,  the  quantity  of 
fruit  set  and  the  skill  of  the  workman.  Based  upon 
the  cost  in  several  orchards  where  thinning  is  practiced, 
the  cost  will  range  from  ten  cents  to  one  dollar  per 
tree.  Even  at  the  latter  figure, 'with  large  trees  of 
standard  varieties,  yielding  from  three  to  five  barrels 
per  tree,  the  difference  in  the  value  will  pay  for  the 
labor  and  leave  a  good  margin  for  profit.  The  range 
of  prices  between  fancy  apples  and  the  ordinary  grades 


44          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

is  often  one  dollar  to  three  dollars  per  barrel,  which 
leaves  a  large  margin  for  profit,  while  the  improved 
condition  of  the  trees  for  future  crops  is  no  inconsider- 
able item  in  favor  of  thinning  the  fruit.  The  time  for 
this  work  will  vary  somewhat  with  different  varieties, 
but  it  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  imperfect  and  wormy 
fruit  can  be  detected.  In  doing  the  work  great  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  spurs  and  leaves  are  not  pulled 
off,  for  more  injury  than  good  might  result  if  very 
much  of  the  foliage  was  removed  in  the  process  of 
thinning. 

AGE     OF     BEARING 

The  average  age  at  which  the  apple  will  begin  to 
bear  profitable  crops  is  from  ten  to  twelve  years  from 
planting  in  the  orchard,  varying  somewhat  according 
to  the  variety,  the  soil  in  which  the  trees  are  grown 
and  the  care  given  them.  With  proper  treatment  good 
crops  of  fruit  should  be  realized  for  at  least  fifty  years, 
although  the  average  bearing  age  of  the  apple  orchards 
of  the  country  is  much  less. 

Odd  Year  Bearing — In  most  orchards  large  crops 
of  fruit  are  produced  only  upon  alternate  years  and  this 
bearing  year  has  become  more  or  less  fixed  upon  the 
even  year  in  most  Northern  fruit  sections.  The  cause  of 
this  condition  may  be  climatic,  as  a  severe  late  frost  or 
freeze,  a  long  storm  while  the  trees  are  in  bloom.  It 
may  be  due  to  overbearing  one  season,  which  results  in 
the  exhaustion  of  the  tree,  requiring  one  or  more  years 
thereafter  to  develop  fruit  buds  again.  Drouth  for  a 
succession  of  seasons  may  also  bring  on  the  same  con- 
ditions, as  may  the*  depredations  of  canker  worms  or 
other  insects.  In  1884  a  severe  frost  or  freeze  occurred 
on  the  night  of  M.ay  30  in  the  western  part  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  upon  the  southern  and  eastern  slopes  the 
young  fruit  was  frozen  and  the  crop  destroyed,  while 


THE    APPLE  45 

the  following  season  all  the  trees  that  lost  their  fruit 
in  1884  bore  the  heaviest  crop  that  was  ever  known 
in  1885. 

The  bearing  year  may  be  changed: 

1.  By  removing  a  part  or  all  of  the  fruit  the  bear- 
ing year  soon  after  it  is  set.     One  operation  is  often 
successful  if  thoroughly  done,  but  sometimes  must  be 
repeated.     This  should  be  practiced  upon  young  trees 
until  the  habit  desired  has  become  fixed. 

2.  By  manuring  the  land  the  bearing  year  with 
bone  and  potash  or  bone  and  wood  ashes,  which  has  a 
tendency  to  increase  the  vigor  of  the  trees  and  to  the 
formation  of  fruit  buds;  or  by  using  nitrogenous  ma- 
nures, like  stable  manure,  nitrate  of  soda,  etc.,  the 
unfruitful  year,  which  will  produce  a  large  growth  of 
wood  at  the  expense  of  the  fruit  buds. 

3.  Seeding  the  land  to  grass  the  bearing  year 
might  produce  the  same  result,  but  there  would  be 
danger  that  the  crop  of  fruit  and  the  crop  of  grass 
on  the  land  the  same  year  might  result  in  too  great 
a  check  upon  the  growth  of  the  trees. 

4.  Plowing  the  orchard  the  unfruitful  year  and 
cultivating  thoroughly  the  bearing  year  would  also  tend 
to  produce  the  desired  change. 

5.  Changing  of  the  bearing  year  by  canker  worms 
destroying  the  blossoms,  by  the  use  of  torch  to  destroy 
the  blossoms,  or  a  frost  destroying  the  fruit  after  it 
lias  set,  while  they  may  bring  the  desired  change,  cannot 
be  recommended,  because  of  the  direct  injury  to  the 
trees,  and  in  the  business  of  fruit  growing  it  is  desirable 
to  economize  the  strength  of  the  trees  as  much  as  pos- 
sible if  continued  good  results  are  expected. 

REGRAFTING    OLD    TREES 

Upon  most  of  our  farms,  especially  in  the  older 
portions  of  the  country,  may  be  found  healthy,  vigorous 


46 


SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 


trees  that  produce  only  cider  apples  or  fruit  that  is  not 
in  demand  in  the  market.  These  trees  often  occupy 
valuable  land,  or  from  their  producing  fruit  of  no  value 
are  not  cared  for,  only  serving  as  a  breeding  place  for 
the  canker  worm,  tent  caterpillar,  codlin  moth,  apple 


Fig.  27-Regrafted  Tree,  Three  Years  from  Grafting 

maggot  and  other  injurious  insects,  and  should  either 
be  cut  down  or  regrafted  with  varieties  that  have  some 
market  value.  If  the  trunks  of  such  trees  are  sound 
and  the  growth  is  fairly  vigorous,  they  may  be  regrafted 
at  little  expense  and  in  from  three  to  five  years  produce 


THE    APPLE  4? 

a  large  crop  of  fruit.  If  the  trees  are  not  growing 
vigorously  it  will  be  found  profitable  to  apply  some 
stable  manure  or  commercial  fertilizer  to  them  the  sea- 
son before  grafting,  as  cions  are  much  more  sure  to 
grow  in  a  vigorous  stock  than  in  one  that  is  growing 
slowly.  Figure  27  shows  a  regrafted  tree  three  years 
from  grafting. 

Cleft  Grafting — The  kind  of  grafting  most  prac- 
ticed in  renovating  old  trees  is  called  cleft  grafting, 
because  the  cion  is  inserted  in  the  cleft  of  the  stock. 
It  consists  in  first  cutting  off  as  many  branches,  from 
one  to  two  inches  in  diameter  (which  are  called 
stocks),  as  are  needed  to  make  a  full  head,  if  the 
whole  tree  is  to  be  grafted. 
This  number  will  vary  from 
ten  to  perhaps  twenty,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the 
tree.  It  is  often  the  prac- 
tice to  graft  only  a  part  of 
the  tree  the  first  year,  com- 
pleting the  work  the  second 
year,  by  which  means  the 
trees  do  not  receive  a  severe 
check  in  growth.  After  the  stocks  are  cut  off  with 
a  fine-toothed  saw,  cutting  at  a  point  where  the 
split  will  be  straight  grained,  they  are  pared  smoothly. 
Then,  beginning  with  the  highest  cleft,  each  stock  is 
split  with  the  blade  of  the  grafting  chisel,  Figure  28, 
which  should  be  made  with  a  hook  for  convenience  in 
hanging  it  on  a  branch  or  on  the  handle  of  a  basket 
while  working.  The  blade  is  now  driven  out  by  a  blow 
upon  the  head  of  the  wedge,  and  the  wedge  driven  into 
the  cleft  to  keep  it  open  until  the  cion  is  inserted. 

The  cion,  Figure  29,  is  a  piece  of  firm,  mature 
wood  of  last  season's  growth,  taken  from  the  outside 
shoots  of  vigorous  bearing  trees,  two  or  three  inches  long 


48 


SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 


and  containing  from  two  to  three  buds.  The  cion  is 
cut  wedge  shaped,  lengthwise,  as  shown  to  the  left  of 
the  figure,  with  the  inner  edge  thinner  than  the  outer, 

as  seen  in  cross  section.     It 

is  a  great  advantage  to  have  a 

bud  on  the  outer  part  of  the 

wedge,  as  shown  at  a,  Figure 

30,  as  a  branch  formed  below 

the  top  of  the  cleft,  as  at  a, 

will  make  a  much   stronger 

union  than  if  it  unites  only 

on  top,  as  at   6.     The  cion 

must  be  cut   with  a   sharp, 

thin-bladed  knife,   with   one 

quick,  clean  stroke  on  each  F!g-  30~ Bud  _ 

•jo  ,.-  MI    i          low  and  at  Top 

Fig.  29— cion  sic*e-     kome  practice  will  be     Of  wedge 

required    to    make    a    clean 

flat  cut  on  each  side  that  shall  press  closely  to  the  sides 
of  the  cleft  in  its  entire  length.  The  cion  is  then 
inserted  in  the  cleft  with  its  cambium  layer,  or  inner 

bark,  in  close  contact 
with  that  of  the  stock, 
Figure  31,  a;  the 


&M1/ 


Fig.  32 

thicker  part  of  the  cion 


ward,  so  that  when  the 
wedge  is  withdrawn  the  pressure  of  the  stock  will  be 
such  that  the  cambium  layers,  where  union  can  only 
take  place,  are  brought  firmly  together.  Two  cions  are 


THE     APPLE 


inserted  for  safety,  and  if  both  grow  one  is  cut  out  the 

following  season. 

A  horizontal  view  of  the  completed  cleft  graft  is 

shown  in  Figures  31  and  32,  while  a  perspective  view  is 
shown  in  Figure  33.  Should 
the  stock  be  small,  less  than 
an  inch  in  diameter,  it  should 
be  drawn  firmly  together  with 
a  strong  string  after  the  cions 
have  been  inserted.  In  case 
very  large  stocks,  more  than 
two  inches  in  diameter,  must 
be  grafted,  it  is  better  either 
to  make  two-  clefts,  as  in  Fig- 


Fig.  33 -Per-  urg  34    an(j  jnsert  four  cions, 

spective  View  .. 

of  Graft          or   to    crown   graft   them    by 
inserting  the  cions  under  the 
bark  after  it  will  peel,  and  not  split  the  stock. 

The  many  methods  of  grafting,  not  described  here, 
may  be  found  fully  explained  in  Fuller's  or  other  books 
on  propagation,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred.  The 
points  to  be  kept  distinctly  in  mind  in  cleft  grafting  are : 

1.  A  clean,  smooth  cut. 

2.  A  perfect  union  of  the  inner  bark  or  cambium 
layers  of  the  stock  and  cion. 

3.  Rapid  work  that  the  cut  parts  may  not  be  long 
exposed  to  the  air. 

4.  A  perfectty  air  and  water  tight  covering  to 
cover  all  the  cut  parts. 

After  the  cions  have  been  put  in  and  the  wedge 
taken  out,  the  whole  cut  surface  must  be  covered  with 
grafting  wax,  to  exclude  both  air  and  moisture. 

Grafting  Wax — A  very  good  article  of  grafting  wax 
may  be  purchased  of  seedsmen  and  dealers  in  nursery- 
men's supplies,  or  it  may  be  made  as  follows: 

1.     Melt  together  equal  parts  of  beeswax,  rosin  and 


50          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

tallow;  or,  in  place  of  the  tallow,  one-fourth  as  much 
linseed  oil.  The  mixture  should  be  allowed  to  become 
slightly  cool,  when  it  may  be  turned  out  into  water  and 
then  "worked"  or  drawn  until  it  is  tough  and  plastic. 
If  grafting  is  to  be  done  in  cool  weather  more  tallow 
may  be  used,  or  if  in  hot  weather,  more  rosin  is  desirable. 

2.  1  pound  tallow. 

1  pound  beeswax. 
1-4  pound  rosin. 

3.  1  pound  tallow. 

2  pounds  beeswax. 
4  pounds  rosin. 

Use  melted  with  brush.  Luther  Burbank^s  formula. 

4.  1  pound  tallow. 

2  pounds  beeswax. 

4  pounds  rosin. 

2  ounces  alcohol. 

The  writer  has  found  a  very  hard  wax,  softened 
with  alcohol,  Formula  4,  so  as  to  be  applied  with  a  putty 
knife,  a  great  convenience.  In  the  Formulas  1  and  2 
if  double  the  amount  of  rosin  is  used,  and  when  a  little 
cooled,  so  as  not  to  ignite  the  alcohol,  about  an  ounce 
of  the  latter  is  added,  it  will  keep  the  wax  plastic  and 
it  can  be  very  quickly  applied  with  the  putty  knife. 
The  cions  should  be  cut  some  time  before  the 
work  of  grafting  is  to  be  done,  some  nurserymen  pre- 
ferring to  have  them  cut  before  freezing  much  in  the 
early  winter,  but  unless  one  has  a  good  place  to  store 
them  more  injury  may  result  .while  being  kept  than 
if  they  remained  on  the  tree.  Cions  of  apples  and 
pears  may  be  cut  only  a  few  days  before  the  work  is 
to  be  done.  The  best  place  in  which  to  keep  cions  is 
in  moist  sawdust  in  an  icehouse.  It  is  the  practice  of 
some  of  our  best  nurserymen  to  tie  them  in  bundles, 
wrap  them  in  sawdust  covered  with  burlap,  let  them 


THE    APPLE  51 

freeze  and  then  put  upon  the  ice.  In  this  way  they 
may  be  kept  dormant  as  long  as  is  needed  for  any  kind 
of  grafting.  In  cleft  grafting  two  cions  are  generally 
inserted  to  insure  success,  one  of  which  is  cut  away  if 
both  grow.  Only  the  branches  to  be  used  for  clefts  are 
cut  off  at  the  time  of  grafting,  many  small  lateral 
branches  being  allowed  to  grow,  for  to  remove  all  buds 
and  branches  would  give  the  tree  too  severe  a  check. 

After  Care — All  suckers  that  come  out  near  the 
cions  during  the  summer  should  be  removed,  that  the 
force  of  growth  may  all  go  to  the  cions.  If  the  buds 
from  the  cion  tend  to  grow  with  so  great  vigor  as  to 
be  easily  broken  by  the  wind,  it  is  well  to  pinch  off  the 
ends  before  they  are  thus  injured,  for  by  such  accidents 
the  work  may  be  put  back  often  more  than  one  year. 
The  best  time  for  grafting  the  apple  and  pear  is  when 
the  buds  are  beginning  to  swell  rapidly,  but  unless 
crown  grafting  is  practiced,  the  bark  should  not  peel 
readily  when  the  work  is  being  done. 

VARIETIES 

At  the  present  time  not  less  than  one  thousand 
varieties  of  apples  of  some  merit  are  more  or  less  culti- 
vated, many  of  which  may  be  of  considerable  value  in 
certain  localities.  Of  the  numerous  varieties  that  have 
been  described  in  more  extensive  works  on  fruit  culture, 
probably  not  more  than  ten  can  be  said  to  be  thoroughly 
hardy,  productive  and  profitable  in  any  one  section  of 
the  country.  In  the  West  many  varieties  succeed  that 
are  of  no  value  in  the  East,  and  vice  versa. 

The  inexperienced  fruit  grower  must  decide  what 
kinds  are  best  for  him  to  plant  by  consulting  his  com- 
mission men  and  dealers  as  to  what  kinds  are  in  demand 
at  paying  prices,  and  his  neighbors  and  other  successful 
fruit  growers  as  to  what  kinds  are  the  most  productive, 
most  free  from  insects  and  that  succeed  in  certain  kinds 


52  SUCCESSFUL  FEUIT  CULTURE 

of  soil,  exposure  or  conditions  of  growth.  In  every  State 
of  the  Union  the  horticulturists  of  the  experiment  sta- 
tions are  making  tests  of  varieties  and  each  can  advise  as 
to  the  probable  value  of  any  variety  within  his  own  State 
and  is  ready  to  assist  any  and  all  to  the  extent  of  his 
ability  in  all  of  the  different  problems  that  often  beset 
the  experienced  as  well  as  the  inexperienced. 

It  is  the  experience  of  almost  every  orchardist  that 
too  many  varieties  are  planted.  In  different  localities 
different  varieties  are  popular,  are  known  to  the  consum- 
ers, and  only  those  will  sell  until  they  become  familiar 
with  new  or  better  varieties,  yet  any  of  the  many  good 
kinds,  if  of  good  size  and  color,  are  sure  to  sell  well  after 
one  or  two  seasons  in  the  market,  and  the  better  the 
quality  the  more  popular  will  they  become.  For  this 
reason  it  will  be  safe  to  plant  any  of  the  standard 
sorts  that  grow  well  in  a  given  locality  and  produce 
large  and  fair,  well  colored  fruit. 

New  Varieties — Few,  if  any,  of  the  varieties  in 
general  cultivation  may  be  called  perfect,  and  it  is  the 
part  of  wisdom  for  each  grower  to  test,  on  a  limited 
scale,  some  of  the  more  promising  new  kinds  or  those 
that  have  become  prominent  in  other  sections  or  other 
markets,  to  determine  if  some  other  variety  than  those 
already  grown  may  not  be  more  profitable.  Each  kind, 
however,  is  found  to  succeed  better  in  one  locality,  or 
perhaps  upon  one  kind  of  soil,  than  another,  or  may  be 
more  profitable  from  its  being  well  known  in  certain 
markets,  and  one  must  go  slowly  and  grow  the  main 
crop  of  the  "old  reliables"  until  the  merits  of  any  new 
varieties  are  positively  known. 

CLASSIFICATION     OF     VARIETIES 

For  convenience  of  description  and  determination 
of  varieties  perhaps  the  best  classification  is  that  adopted 
by  the  late  J.  J.  Thomas,  in  his  book  entitled  American 


THE     APPLE  53 

Fruit  Culturist,  in  which  all  varieties  are  arranged  into 
three  groups,  i.  e.,  summer,  autumn  and  winter.  Each 
of  these  groups  is  again  divided  into  sweet  and  sour 
and  these  again  into  those  that  are  striped  and  not 
striped,  as  follows: 

f  Sweet]  griped 

Summer  J  j£!  St/l 

|    a          (  Striped 

[  Sour    I  Not  striped 


t  striped 

I 


Winter 


By  the  above  arrangement  one  may  trace  the  variety 
to  its  description  and  name  if  too  many  varieties  are 
not  grown  in  a  given  locality. 

Standard  Varieties — In  this  list  I  shall  only  in- 
clude those  varieties  that  are  especially  desirable  and 
profitable  in  many  sections  of  the  country  and  especially 
in  New  England  and  the  northern  Middle  States.  For 
a  more  extended  description  of  varieties  I  would  refer 
the  reader  to  that  valuable  and  complete  work,  Down- 
ing's  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America,  the  reports 
and  bulletins  of  the  horticulturists  of  the  numerous 
experiment  stations,  the  reports  of  the  leading  horticul- 
tural societies,  and  especially  that  of  the  American 
Pomological  Society,  in  which  the  varieties  most  valu- 
able in  each  locality  are  specified.  • 

SUMMER     VARIETIES 

Red  Astrachan — Large,  flattened,  beautifully  col- 
ored apple  of  Russian  origin.  The  flesh  is  very  white, 


54          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURK 

crisp  and  tender,  but  rather  acid  for  table  use.  The 
tree  is  vigorous,  upright,  with  large  foliage,  hardy  and 
productive.  To  be  most  profitable  this  variety  and 
Early  Williams  must  be  allowed  to  ripen  on  the  tree, 
and  be  picked  from  time  to  time  as  it  colors,  or  hay 
may  be  spread  under  the  branches  for  the  fruit  to 
urop  upon. 

Williams — A  favorite  table  apple  wherever  known. 
Large,  oblong,  conical,  brilliantly  colored  when  ripened 
on  the  tree,  but  if  picked  before  colored  it  fails  to  take 
on  the  beautiful  colors  which  make  it  so  attractive 
in  the  market.  Quality  good,  of  a  mild  sub-acid  flavor. 

AUTUMN     VARIETIES 

Oldenburg — Of  Eussian  origin;  fruit  large,  round, 
yellow  striped  with  red,  of  a  mild  acid  flavor  and  valu- 
able for  cooking  and  table  use.  Tree  productive  and 
comes  into  bearing  early;  needs  thinning  to  produce 
fruit  of  the  best  size. 

Gravenstein — Perhaps  the  most  valuable  of  all 
fall  apples,  and  one  that  by  means  of  cold  storage  can 
be  put  on  the  market  for  two  months.  It  succeeds  best 
on  a  deep,  sandy  loam,  but  on  a  strong  clay  or  clayey 
loam  soil  is  liable  to  be  injured  by  the  action  of  frost 
upon  the  bark  of  the  trunk.  The  tree  is  remarkable 
for  its  vigorous  growth  and  is  a  good  bearer. 

Wealthy — ISTo  new  apple  has  attracted  so  much 
interest  as  this.  It  promises  to  fill  a  long  felt  need 
for  a  showy  apple  of  good  quality  for  shipping  to 
European  markets.  It  is  in  perfect  condition  in  Sep- 
tember, but  will  keep  for  a  month  or  more  with  ordi- 
nary care  and  much  longer  in  cold  storage.  Its  great 
beauty,  fine  texture  and  fine  quality  will  make  a  market 
for  it  anywhere,  and  its  firmness  in  texture  will  insure 
its  exporting  in  good  condition.  The  fruit  is  medium 
to  large  in  size  and  of  the  most  brilliant  color.  The 


THE    APPLE  55 

tree  is  moderately  vigorous  and  begins  to  bear  early  and 
is  very  productive. 

Mclntosh — An  old  variety  originating  in  Canada, 
but  now  attracting  attention  on  account  of  its  great 
beauty  and  fine  quality.  It  ripens  with  the  Wealthy 
and  Gravenstein.  In  some  localities  it  is  reported  to 
be  not  very  productive,  and  is  often  subject  to  the  attack 
of  the  apple  scab,  like  its  parent,  the  Fameuse. 

Fall  Pippin — A  large  apple,  somewhat  resembling 
the  Ehode  Island  Greening;  large,  with  a  white,  firm 
flesh,  often  with  some  blush  on  the  exposed  side.  The 
tree  is  vigorous  and  moderately  productive;  valuable 
especially  for  cooking,  September  to  December. 

WINTER    APPLES 

Baldwin — A  bright  red  apple  of  medium  to  large 
size,  of  fair  quality  and  a  good  keeper.  Tree  vigorous, 
and  generally  thought  to  be  more  productive  in  the 
Eastern  States  than  any  other  variety.  In  many  sections 
of  the  country  the  fruit  is  badly  affected  with  the 
"brown"  or  "dry-rot,"  which  attacks  it  when  it  is  ripen- 
ing. When  these  spots  are  numerous,  the  fruit,  which 
looks  well  on  the  outside,  is  of  little  value  and  seriously 
injures  the  demand  for  other  kinds. 

Ben  Davis — A  large,  red-striped  apple,  that  is  val- 
uable for  its  late  keeping  qualities  only,  being  so  poor 
in  quality  that  few  people  will  buy  them  a  second  time. 
Tree  vigorous  and  very  productive. 

Fameuse  (or  Snow  Apple) — Fruit  of  medium  size, 
of  deep  red  color  and  with  a  remarkably  white  flesh; 
very  juicy,  crisp  and  of  the  finest  quality,  tree  vigor- 
ous and  productive.  It  is  a  very  valuable  dessert  fruit, 
and  when  well  grown,  upon  rich  soil  and  the  fruit 
thinned,  it  is  of  good  size  and  profitable. 

Hubbardston — A  large,  oblong,  conical,  early  winter 
apple  of  fine  sub-acid  quality.  The  tree  is  moder- 


56          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

ately  vigorous  and  very  productive.  A  valuable  dessert 
fruit. 

Washington  Royal  (Palmer  Greening) — An  early 
winter  apple  of  a  light  green  color,  often  shaded  with 
bright  red  on  the  exposed  side,  changing  to  a  golden 
yellow  when  ripe,  and  is  sure  to  sell  when  well  grown. 
The  tree  is  of  rather  slow  growth,  but  under  good 
conditions  makes  a  good  size,  and  is  very  productive. 
Time  of  ripening,  from  January  to  March. 

Button  Beauty — This  apple  is  much  like  the  Bald- 
win in  form  and  color,  but  a  little  smaller  in  size.  In 
quality  it  is  better  than  the  latter  and  is  free  from  the 
brown  spots  under  the  skin  when  ripening,  so  common 
to  the  Baldwin.  The  tree  is  vigorous,  upright  and 
compact  in  growth,  and  very  productive.  It  is  being 
largely  planted  in  place  of  the  Baldwin,  especially  in 
New  England,  where  it  originated. 

Rhode  Island  Greening — Everywhere  known  as  a 
very  good  early  winter  apple,  succeeding  almost  every- 
where; excellent  both  for  cooking  and  for  the  table. 
Tree  rather  spreading  in  form,  vigorous  and  productive. 

King  (Tompkins  Co.  King) — A  very  large, 
striped  apple  of  good  quality,  showy,  but  coarse  and 
often  imperfect.  Profitable  in  New  York  State  and 
some  Western  sections,  but  not  in  New  England. 

Roxbury  Russet — An  acid,  round,  russet  apple, 
valued  especially  for  its  late  keeping  qualities.  Tree 
vigorous,  productive,  but  requires  a  rich  soil. 

Spy  (Northern  Spy) — In  quality  one  of  the  best, 
but  succeeds  only  in  certain  sections.  The  tree  is  vigor- 
ous, upright  in  habit,  but  conies  late  into  bearing.  It 
makes  a  very  valuable  stock  upon  which  to  top-graft 
slow  growing  kinds. 

York  Imperial — An  apple  that  is  attracting  atten- 
tion for  shipping,  and  in  English  and  other  European 
markets  it  brings  the  highest  prices.  In  form  it  is 


THE     APPLE  57 

round,  oblique,  of  a  deep  red  color  and  good  quality. 
It  is  one  of  the  best  keepers,  and  promises  to  be  one  of 
the  most  profitable  varieties. 

Newtown  Pippin  (Albemarle  Pippin) — This 
variety  is  of  only  local  value,  as  it  succeeds  only  in  a 
few  sections,  but  where  it  can  be  grown  it  is  very 
profitable.  It  somewhat  resembles  the  Rhode  Island 
Greening,  but  is  smoother,  more  beautiful  and  of  better 
quality.  It  is  well  known  in  European  markets,  where 
it  brings  the  highest  prices. 

SWEET    APPLES 

Sweet  Bough — A  large,  pale  yellow  apple,  juicy  and 
good;  valuable  for  home  consumption.  Early  sweet 
apples  are  not  generally  in  large  demand  in  most  mar- 
kets, but  a  limited  amount  will  sell  at  good  prices 
and  this  is  one  of  the  best  in  its  season. 

Pumpkin  Sweet — A  very  large  apple,  oblate  in 
form,  with  more  or  less  russet  over  the  whole  surface. 
In  quality  very  sweet  and  cooks  well,  though  the  texture 
is  rather  coarse.  Tree  remarkably  vigorous  and  moder- 
ately productive.  Much  subject  to  the  attack  of  the 
apple  maggot. 

Ladies  Sweet — One  of  the  best  winter  sweet  apples. 
It  is  of  medium  to  large  size,  roundish-conical  in  form 
and  nearly  covered  with  red;  sweet,  crisp,  tender  and 
a  good  keeper;  tree  moderately  vigorous  and  pro- 
ductive. 

Jacob's  Sweet — Large,  light  green,  changing  to  a 
light  yellow  and,  shaded  with  a  bright  red  on  the  sunny 
side.  One  of  the  largest  and  best  early  winter  sweet 
apples  and  a  fairly  good  keeper. 

ADDITIONAL     VARIETIES 

Summer — Early  Harvest,  Alexander,  Yellow 
Transparent,  Golden  Sweet. 


58  SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTUEE 

Autumn — Twenty  Ounce,  Leicester  Sweet,  Con- 
gress, Pomme  Eoyal. 

Winter — Fallawater,  Grimes  Golden,  Jonathan, 
Lady  Apple,  Danvers  Sweet,  Wolf  Kiver. 

GATHERING     APPLES 

Summer  apples  should  be  picked,  if  for  market, 
as  soon  as  mature  but  before  they  become  mellow,  and 
be  sent  to  market  at  once  or  put  in  cold  storage.  Yel- 
low or  green  varieties  require  the  greatest  care  in  pick- 
ing and  packing  and  must  be  handled  so  that  the  skin 
will  not  be  broken  or  the  tissues  below  the  skin  injured. 
For  cooking  purposes  the  fruit  may  all  be  picked  at 
once,  but  for  table  use  or  to  supply  fruit  stands,  some 
varieties  will  sell  well  only  when  they  are  allowed  to 
color  on  the  tree. 

It  is  the  practice  of  many  growers  who  supply  a 
local  market  to  spread  two  or  three  inches  of  hay  under 
the  tree  and  allow  the  fruit  to  fall  as  it  matures. 
Such  varieties  as  the  Gravenstein,  Williams,  etc.,  treated 
in  this  way  become  very  beautifully  colored  and  bring 
better  prices  than  if  picked  from  the  tree.  The  cost  of 
picking  is  also  much  less.  For  long  distance  shipping, 
however,  this  could  not  be  practiced. 

As  a  rule,  the  sooner  after  maturing  summer  and 
autumn  varieties  are  picked,  and  in  the  market,  the  bet- 
ter and  the  more  profitable  they  are  to  the  grower.  Win- 
ter apples  should  not  be  picked  until  fully  grown,  but 
should  be  secured  before  severe  freezing  weather  takes 
place,  and  always  before  the  mellowing  process  begins, 
to  have  them  keep  well.  It  is  pretty  well  settled  that 
apples  picked  early  in  autumn,  i.  e.,  before  October 
10th,  will  keep  longer  than  if  picked  later,  though  they 
may  not  be  as  large,  well  colored  or  of  as  good  quality. 

Apples  should  never  be  shaken  from  the  tree,  as 
not  one  in  ten  thus  gathered  will  fail  to  receive  some 


THE    APPLE  59 

injury.  The  fruit  should  be  picked  by  hand  into  baskets 
suspended  by  hooks  to  the  ladder  or  to  a  branch  near 
where  the  ladder  is  placed,  be  taken  to  the  ground  and 
carefully  placed  in  piles  or  in  barrels  or  boxes,  to  be 
carried  to  some  cool  place  for  packing.  It  requires 
some  skill  to  do  so  simple  a  thing  as  to  pick  apples 
properly.  If  the  stem  is  pulled  out,  the  beauty  of  the 
fruit  is  injured,  as  well  as  its  keeping  qualities.  If  the 
apples  are  pulled  off,  the  spur  with  its  fruit  buds  is 
often  broken  and  the  crop  ,for  the  next  year  destroyed. 
In  picking,  the  thumb  or  forefinger  is  placed  against 
the  stem  and  the  apple  turned  completely  over,  when, 
with  the  pressure  of  the  finger,  the  stem  separates  from 
the  tree  at  the  proper  place,  and  neither  tree  nor  fruit 
is  injured. 

For  picking  tender  fleshed  varieties,  like  the  Pal- 
mer Greening,  Fameuse,  etc.,  the  basket  should  be  lined 
with  burlap,  or  some  other  cloth,  to  prevent  bruising. 
For  picking  specimens  beyond  the  reach  of  the  ladder, 
some  of  the  hand  pickers  are  very  serviceable.  For 
getting  into  the  tops  of  large  trees  long  ladders 
are  indispensable,  and  several  lengths  should  be  in 
readiness,  all  made  of  straight 
grained,  light  lumber  and  well 
seasoned.  All  ladders  should  bo 
thoroughly  painted  and  be  kept 
housed  when  not  in  use,  other- 
wise they  decay  very  rapidly,  and 
a  weak  ladder  is  a  dangerous 
thing  to  work  with.  Extension, 
ladders  are  found  very  conven- 
ient. The  common  stepladder 
will  be  found  indispensable,  es-  Fig.  35-orchard  stepladder 
pecially  for  the  low  branches 

and  low-headed  trees.  One  of  the  best  forms  of  step- 
ladders  is  shown  in  Figure  35.  The  two  main  legs  of  the 


60  SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

ladder  come  together  at  the  top  and  the  third  leg  is 
bolted  in  between  them,  thus  forming  a  tripod,  and  if 
the  two  main  legs  are  three  or  more  feet  apart,  it  will 
stand  very  firmly.  This  ladder  is  more  cheaply  made 
than  the  common  form  of  stepladders,  occupies  less  space, 
and  the  top  being  pointed,  it  can  be  placed  in  among 
the  branches  much  better  than  the  common  ladders. 
The  main  legs  of  the  six-foot  ladder  should  be  two  and 
one-half  feet  apart,  the  eight-foot  ladder  three  feet  and 
the  ten-foot  three  and  one-half  feet  apart. 

After  picking  the  fruit  many  growers  put  it  in 
piles  under  the  trees  and  sort  and  pack  from  the  ground. 
But  this  is  a  very  slow  and  hard  way  of  doing  the  work, 
for  no  one  can  work  to  advantage  in  such  a  position. 
If  the  fruit  is  to  be  packed  in  the  orchard^,  a  much 
better  way  is  to  put  it  into  a  low  wagon  body  that 
stands  just  high  enough  for  comfortable  working  and 
sort  and  pack  as  the  fruit  is  picked,  moving  the  wagon 
along  as  the  trees  are  finished.  A  sorting  box  or  tray  is 
also  sometimes  used,  it  being  moved  along  from  time  to 
time  as  is  needed.  This  box  should  be  made  with  three 
legs,  so  as  to  stand  firmly  on  uneven  land  and  slope 
to  the  sorting  end  from  three  to  four  inches,  so  that 
the  fruit  will  work  toward  the  sorter. 

Some  of  the  largest  growers  in  the  country  put  into 
barrels  as  they  are  picked  and  take  them  directly  to  a 
cool,  open  shed  or  barn,  or  to  a  cold  storage  room.  Here 
they  may  be  kept  until  all  the  fruit  is  safely  housed 
before  it  is  sorted  and  then  be  packed.  If  help  is  abun- 
dant, unless  the  fruit  is  to  be  kept  for  a  late  market, 
it  is  just  as  well  to  pick  and  pack  in  the  field  as  it 
comes  from  the  trees,  but  if  help  is  not  abundant,  or 
if  the  crop  is  very  large,  it  is  best  to  get  the  fruit  into 
a  cool  place  as  soon  as  possible. 

One  of  the  best  methods  is  that  practiced  by  the 
veteran  fruit  grower  of  Massachusetts,  Dr.  Jabez  Fisher 


THE    APPLE  61 

of  Fitchburg,  who  uses  a  bushel  box  with  a  corner  piece 
nailed  on  each  corner,  as  shown  in  Figure  36.  This 
piece  is  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  thick 
and  allows  the  air  to  circulate  over  the 
fruit  enough  to  carry  off 
the  surplus  moisture  and 
yet  not  enough  to  cause  it 
to  wilt.  The  boxes  of  fruit 
are  placed  in  the  cold  stor- 


Fly.  36  — Conven-  age  room  or  cellar  in  piles,  Pig.  37— Boxes  in 
lent  Bushel  Box    as  shown  in  Figure  37,  and    StOMB" 

not  disturbed  until  it  is  to  be  sorted  for  market.  Any 
kind  of  a  box  might  be  used,  but  the  common  bushel 
market  box  is  very  convenient  to  handle,  it  packs  to 
good  advantage  and  is  cheap. 

ASSORTING    APPLES 

A  great  deal  of  skill  is  required  to  sort  apples  so 
that  they  will  give  the  most  satisfaction  to  the  buyer 
and  the  best  returns  to  the  grower.  In  connection  with 
many  large  orchards,  or  in  large  apple  growing  sections, 
large  cold  storage  buildings  are  constructed  with  can- 
ning and  evaporating  appliances,  so  that  all  the  No.  2's 
and  those  often  called  "cider"  apples  are  worked  off 
and  only  No.  1  fruit  is  put  into  barrels.  In  sorting 
fruit,  where  there  is  no  evaporating  or  canning  plant, 
the  fruit  is  divided  in  two  grades,  No.  1  and  No.  2  for 
packing,  and  cider  apples  that  are  generally  sold  in  bulk. 
The  standard  for  grading  varies  very  much  with  differ- 
ent individuals  and  with  different  localities,  but  few 
packers  put  up  their  fruit  so  as  to  get  the  best  results. 
The  standard  of  No.  1  and  No.  2  fruit  also  varies  greatly. 
It  does  not  matter  so  much  as  to  the  size  of  the  fruit 
as  to  its  perfectness  and  even  grade,  yet  the  larger  the 
fruit,  other  things  being  equal,  the  better  will  be  the 
price  at  which  it  will  sell.  If  we  could  grade  our  apples 


G2  SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

as  oranges  are  graded,  they  would,  without  doubt,  bring 
much  higher  prices  than  they  now  do.  But  this  cannot 
be  done  cheaply  by  hand,  and  no  machine  has  been 
found  satisfactory. 

No.  1  apples  should  be  perfectly  smooth,  above  two 
and  one-half  inches  in  diameter,  of  good  color  and  free 
from  all  blemishes,  such  as  worm  holes  and  other  marks 
that  break  through  the  skin.  As  commonly  grown 
there  is  but  little  such  fruit  to  be  found,  but  by  spraying 
and  thinning,  and  more  and  better  fertilization  and 
care,  a  large  per  cent  of  the  fruit  should  be  No.  1. 
No  amount  of  skill  or  care  in  sorting  will  make  good 
fruit;  the  place  to  begin  is  at  the  roots  and  follow 
this  up  to  branch,  leaf  and  fruit  with  the  best  modern 
practice. 

PACKAGES    AND     PACKING 

In  most  parts  of  the  country  the  barrel  is  almost 
wholly  used  for  storing  and  shipping  apples  and  it  has 
many  valuable  features.  It  is  cheap  and  easily  obtained ; 
it  can  be  handled  by  rolling  more  easily  than  any  other 
package  of  its  size,  but  it  has  many  disadvantages  also. 
It  contains  a  larger  amount  of  fruit  than  most  families 
care  to  buy  at  once,  and  it  does  not  pack  to  advantage, 
either  in  the  cellar  or  in  shipping.  Many  attempts  have 
been  made  to  introduce  a  more  convenient  package,  but 
it  has  not  been  successful.  For  local  markets,  the  bushel 
box  is  largely  in  use.  It  is  a  cheap  package,  costing 
only  ten  cents  or  less,  and  it  is  the  practice  in  most 
places  to  return  an  empty  box  when  a  full  one  is 
brought  into  the  market  and  thus  one  lot  of  boxes  may 
be  made  to  last  a  whole  season.  The  fruit  is  rather 
more  easily  and  firmly  packed  in  barrels  than  in  boxes, 
the  round  form  and  bulging  sides  allowing  the  fruit 
to  settle  together  better  than  when  packed  in  boxes. 
Only  clean  barrels  of  the  standard  size  should  be  used. 


THE     APPLE  63 

New  ones  are  of  course  to  be  preferred,  but  cost  more 
than  second-hand  flour  barrels.  The  *  former  can  be 
bought  for  about  thirty  to  forty  cents  each,  while  the 
latter  will  cost  from  ten  to  twenty  cents,  according  to 
the  quantity  purchased.  Many  growers  secure  a  supply 
from  time  to  time,  as  they  are  ready,  from  grocers  or 
boarding  houses  and  get  them  at  low  prices.  The  bar- 
rels thus  obtained  will  need  more  or  less  repairing  and 
should  be  put  into  good  shape  before  the  crop  is  ready 
to  harvest.  The  heads  should  be  looked  over  and 
matched  up  and  placed  one  on  top  of  another  in  barrels, 
so  as  to  be  ready  for  use  without  delay.  They  are 
cleaned  by  washing  and  drying.  First  the  flour  and 
dirt  are  brushed  out,  then  a  pailful  of  water  poured  in 
and  with  an  old  broom  the  inside  washed.  This  water 
is  then  poured  into  another  barrel  and  thus  three  or 
four  barrels  can  be  washed  with  one  water. 

A  layer  of  choice  specimens  is  first  placed  on  the 
bottom  of  the  barrel  with  the  stem  down,  and  while 
finely  colored  specimens  should  be  used  for  this  they 
should  not  be  very  much  better  than 
those  of  the  remaining  part  of  the 
barrel. 

The  barrel  is  then  filled  up  with 
choice  fruit,  shaking  it  from  side  to 
side  several  times  as  it  is  being  filled. 
It   should    be    filled    two    or    three 
inches  above  the  top  of  the  barrel 
and  be  made  as  level   as  possible. 
The  head  is  now  put  on  and  the 
screw    press,    Figure    38,    adjusted. 
This  press  is  much  more  convenient  pj     3g_5crew  Pre89 
than  that  fixed  on  a  platform,  as  it 
can  be  carried  from  tree  to  tree.     Figure  39  shows  a 
lever  press.     Sometimes  a  false  head  with  a  lining  of 
canvas  or  wadding  is  put  on  first,  to  prevent  bruising  the 


64 


SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 


Fig.  39-Lever  Press 


fruit,  as  it  is  pressed  in  place,  and  then  the  permanent 
head  is  put  on,  pressed  in  place  and  nailed  firmly.  The 
head  is  now  further  fastened  in 
place  by  nailing  small,  round 
sticks,  called  "liners,"  firmly 
across  the  ends  or  the  parts  of 
the  head.  Some  packers  loosen 
the  hoops  before  the  head  is 
pressed  in,  while  others  cut  off 
a  strip  from  one  piece  of  the 
head  and  then  press  it  in 
without  starting  the  hoops. 
The  latter  way  is  the  quicker, 
and  if  carefully  done  is  just  as 
well.  The  corrugated  paper  board  cover  should  be  used 
where  much  pressure  is  required,  as  for  shippers  to 
Europe. 

More  care  must  be  exercised  in  filling  the  barrels 
for  exporting  than  for  home  markets.  Some  of  the 
fruit  will  be  injured  in  pressing  in  the  head,  and  the 
pressure  should  be  only  enough  to  keep  the  fruit  from 
shaking  in  transportation.  The  name  of  the  variety,  the 
quality,  and  the  name  of  the  grower  are  to  be  neatly 
stenciled  on  the  faced  end  of  the  barrel,  which  should 
be  made  smooth  and  clean,  if  it  is  not  so  when  the 
packing  begins.  It  is  the  practice  of  many  growers 
to  put  their  name  only  on  the  No.  1  fruit,  the  seconds 
going  to  market  with  only  the  name  of  the  variety  and 
the  grade  upon  the  barrel. 

In  packing  in  boxes  the  bottom  of  the  box  is  taken 
off,  a  head  is  nailed  on  with  half-inch  openings,  and 
the  fruit  is  faced  as  with  the  barrel  and  then  filled  in 
the  same  way,  pressing  it  so  that  it  will  not  shake  in 
shipping.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  ship 
apples  in  boxes  to  the  English  market,  but  in  very 
few  cases  have  they  been  successful,  the  boxes  being 


THE    APPLE  65 

packed  so  closely  and  solidly  in  the  hold  of  the  vessels 
as  to  heat,  and  if  they  are  shaken  about  they  strike 
more  solidly  than  when  in  barrels.  Yet  because  of  the 
ease  of  handling,  the  smaller  package  and  the  fact  that 
the  box  contains  nearer  the  amount  that  is  required 
for  immediate  consumption,  the  box  will  in  time  be 
sure  to  come  into  more  general  use. 

MARKETING    APPLES 

In  seasons  of  scarcity  the  crop  of  apples  is  not 
sufficient  to  supply  the  demand  for  home  consumption 
and  in  seasons  when  the  crop  is  large  our  people  could 
consume  it  if  it  were  distributed  to  all  parts  and  eco- 
nomically handled.  Every  season  more  or  less  quantity 
is  shipped  to  English  or  other  European  markets,  and 
when  it  is  of  good  quality  and  well  packed  it  often 
brings  paying  prices.  The  first  and  most  important 
condition  of  success  in  shipping  apples  to  foreign  mar- 
kets is  good  quality,  the  second  is  firm  fruit,  and  the 
third  is  good  packing.  Fruit  put  into  either  of  these 
markets  in  the  above  conditions  is  sure  to  sell  at  paying 
prices.  The  quantity  shipped  from  America  in  the  past 
has  varied  from  81,552  to  3,395,594  barrels.  The  con- 
ditions of  the  foreign  markets  vary  much  according  to 
the  crops  at  home  and  the  quantity  of  fruit  that  is 
shipped  at  one  time,  and  another  thing  that  is  against 
English  or  European  trade  is  the  fact  that  the  fruit  is 
sold  at  once  on  receipt,  no  matter  how  much  there 
may  be  in  the  market  at  the  time,  there  being  no  facili- 
ties for  holding  it  over  until  the  surplus  is  worked  off. 
When  our  shippers  will  have  agents  at  the  ports  of 
shipment,  with  facilities  for  holding  the  fruit  in  case 
of  surplus,  prices  can  be  maintained  and  almost  certain 
profits  be  realized. 

The  home  market,  however,  is  the  one  that  we  must 
depend  upon  for  the  consumption  of  our  apple  crop, 


6G  SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

for  our  people  do  not  have  all  the  fruit  they  should 
have  for  health  and  comfort,  and  the  fruit  can  be 
delivered  to  the  home  market  at  a  very  little  cost  for 
transportation  and  package.  There  would  be  also  a 
large  saving  in  that  the  money  now  spent  for  foreign 
fruit  would  be  kept  at  home.  But  this  economy  may 
not  be  needful,  as  the  majority  of  our  people  are  able  to 
use  large  quantities  of  both  home  and  imported  fruit; 
the  more  fruit  our  people  consume  the  better  health 
they  will  possess.  For  the  home  market,  the  same 
conditions  hold  as  to  quality  and  packing  as  for  foreign 
markets,  but  perhaps  more  emphasis  should  be  placed 
upon  quality,  for  our  people  can  afford  to  pay  as  high 
prices  as  any  people  in  the  world,  and  the  rule  which 
governs  the  sale  and  price  of  other  fruit  commodities 
affects  more  or  less  the  apple  crop  also,  i.  e.,  that  the 
more  good  fruit  a  market  has  the  more  it  will  take  at 
reasonable  prices  and  the  tendency  will  be  to  an  upward 
price,  unless  there  is  an  overproduction,  and  the  over- 
supply  must  be  prevented  by  finding  a  market  for  the 
surplus  in  other  countries. 

Facilities  are  now  such  that  we  can  send  any  prod- 
uct to  the  remotest  part  of  our  country,  and  the  home 
markets  should  be  investigated  before  any  attempt  to 
supply  foreign  markets  is  made.  The  weather  and  crop 
reports  made  by  the  government  and  published  in  the 
agricultural  papers,  are  generally  accurate  and  will  help 
the  fruit  grower  to  decide  where  to  send  his  fruit — 
whether  to  hold,  or  to  sell  from  the  orchard.  Where 
a  fair  price  is  offered,  it  is  generally  best  to  sell  directly 
from  the  orchard,  unless  one  has  good  facilities  for  stor- 
ing, for  there  will  always  be  a  great  deal  of  waste  from 
keeping  and  the  extra  cost  of  handling  is  an  item  that 
must  be  carefully  considered. 

In  most  sections  of  the  country  the  apple  crop  is 
bought  up  by  dealers  and  it  is  important  that  the 


THE    APPLE  67 

grower  know  the  conditions  of  the  crop,  both  in  this 
country  and  abroad,  in  order  to  know  at  what  prices 
to  sell  or  whether  to  hold.  As  with  most  products  grown 
on  a  small  scale,  it  is  best  to  have  the  crop  sold  by 
co-operative  unions,  or  by  commission  dealers,  unless 
one  has  a  retail  trade  where  he  can  deliver  directly  to 
his  customers,  but  where  the  product  is  large  the  grower 
can  often  do  as  well  to  go  into  the  market  alone  and 
sell  at  as  high  prices  as  can  be  obtained  by  unions  or 
commission  men.  The  most  marked  tendency  of  the 
times  is  concentration  and  combination,  and  all  kinds 
of  produce  are  being  put  into  the  hands  of  large  com- 
mission houses,  where  the  retail  dealer  can  find  just 
what  he  wants  and  in  any  quantity  he  may  desire. 
The  consumer,  too,  goes  to  the  large  retailer  and  expects 
to  find  anything  that  may  be  needed  in  the  way  of 
fruit  or  vegetables  and  does  not  like  to  wait  for  the 
truck  peddler  to  come  around.  The  cost  of  selling  is 
thus  very  much  reduced,  but  the  profit  generally  goes 
into  the  pockets  of  the  commission  men.  Until  the  fruit 
growers  join  hands  and  put  their  products  into  a  few 
large  sales  places  and  have  it  all  graded  in  the  same 
way,  they  cannot  expect  to  control  the  market  as  to 
supply  or  price. 

STOKING     FRUIT 

Every  fruit  grower  should  have  some  place  where 
he  can  hold  his  product  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time, 
in  order  to  keep  it  from  rapid  decay  in  hot  weather 
and  to  regulate  the  supply  for  market.  It  very  often 
happens  that  in  extremely  hot  weather  small  fruits 
may  be  cooled  off  by  putting  them  into  a  cold  storage 
room  for  an  hour  or  two,  so  as  to  carry  to  market  in 
good  condition,  when  if  such  conveniences  were  not 
available  the  lot  would  be  at  a  total  loss.  If  apples 
and  pears  of  such  varieties  as  the  Gravenstein  and 


68  SUCCESSFUL     FKUIT     CULTURE 

Fameuse  and  Bartlett  and  Bosc  be  kept  until  the  main 
crop  is  out  of  the  market,  a  glut  could  be  prevented  and 
much  higher  prices  be  obtained.  The  increased  value  of 
Gravenstein  and  Fameuse  apples  and  Bartlett  or  Bosc 
pears  is  often  as  much  as  one  dollar  to  two  dollars 
per  box. 

Cold  storage  houses  are  constructed  on  three  prin- 
ciples :  ( 1 )  Those  that  are  cooled  off  at  night  by  letting 
in  cold  air  from  the  outside  and  shutting  out  the  hot  air 
during  the  day.  (2)  Those  cooled  by  means  of  ice. 
(3)  Those  cooled  by  chemicals.  The  first  and  second  of 
these  only  are  adapted  to  the  use  of  the  small  grower. 
The  first  method  is  of  little  use,  except  for  fall  and 
winter  fruit,  but  after  the  cold  nights  of  September,  if 
the  doors  and  windows  are  kept  open  at  night  and  are 
closed  during  the  daytime,  an  even,  low  temperature 
may  be  kept  up  that  will  retard  the  ripening  of  apples 
and  pears,  so  as  to  be  of  great  profit  to  the  grower 
and  that  without  much  expense.  The  walls  of  such  a 
building  must  be  made  with  several  air  spaces  on  the 
sides.  The  roof  and  the  windows  must  be  of  several 
thicknesses  and  be  made  to  shut  tightly.  Such  a  house 
can  be  used  in  warm  weather  by  having  an  ice  chamber 
large  enough  to  hold  sufficient  ice  to  lower  the  temper- 
ature to  the  required  point  and  then  be  kept  cool  by 
opening  only  on  cold  nights.  If  it  is  desired  to  make 
the  temperature  very  low,  ice  and  salt  may  be  combined 
to  reduce  it  very  quickly.  The  amount  of  ice  required 
can  only  be  determined  by  experiment. 

Many  cold  storage  houses  are  now  in  use  in  which 
the  low  temperature  is  obtained  by  storing  ice  in  the 
second  story,  the  cold  air  dropping  down  into  the  space 
occupied  by  the  fruit.  In  some  of  these  houses  the  entire 
space  overhead  is  filled  with  ice  and  in  others  only  a 
large  ice  box  is  constructed  in  the  center  of  the  space 
overhead.  In  the  former  case  the  atmosphere  is  likely 


THE    APPLE 


69 


to  be  too  moist  for  the  best  results  and  a  very  large 
amount  of  ice  required — enough  to  last  through  the 
entire  summer — while  in  the  latter  ice  is  only  put  in 
as  it  is  needed,  a  quantity  being  stored  the  winter  before 
in  a  convenient  place  to  fill  up  the  ice  box  at  the  time 
needed.  Figure  40  illustrates  a  very  satisfactory  cold 
storage  house  with  the  ice  chamber  in  the  center,  &/ 
storage  space  on  the  first  floor,  a,  with  space  for  storing 
barrels,  boxes,  etc.,  in  loft.  The  door  and  driveway  are 
shown  at  d.  Packing  and  workroom,  c,  is  in  the  L 
attached,  with  doors  opening  into  storage  room.  Those 


Fig.  40— Fruit  Cold  Storage  House 

who  have  used  both  kinds  of  these  prefer  the  small  ice 
chamber,  using  the  salt  and  ice  mixture  to  lower  the 
temperature  quickly  when  ready  to  put  in  the  fruit 
in  the  fall. 

A  cellar,  if  it  can  be  perfectly  drained,  often  makes 
a  very  good  fruit  room,  but  much  attention  must  be 
given  to  ventilation  and  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere 
as  to  moisture.  In  the  construction  of  the  walls  of  a  cold 
storage  room,  air  spaces  are  generally  better  than  those 
filled  with  sawdust,  but  a  wall  filled  with  charcoal  dust 
is  much  better  than  either,  as  it  is  a  perfect  non-con- 


70  SUCCESSFUL  FBUIT  CULTURE 

ductor  and  will  prevent  the  decay  of  the  woodwork. 
One  thickness  of  building  paper  to  each  sheathing 
should  be  used  if  there  are  four  or  more  air  spaces  and 
two  thicknesses  if  there  are  less  than  four  air  spaces. 
The  best  results  will  not  be  obtained,  however,  unless 
the  walls  are  at  least  two  feet  in  thickness,  and  with 
four  or  more  spaces.  All  doors  and  windows  must  be 
made  with  two  or  more  thicknesses,  and  all  joints  to 
fit  closely. 

The  use  of  chemicals  for  lowering  the  temperature 
can  only  be  profitably  employed  where  large  quantities 
of  fruit  or  other  produce  are  to  be  stored.  Such  houses 
are  generally  located  in  large  business  centers,  the 
produce  shipped  directly  from  the  grower  and  is  then 
kept  until  being  sold.  As  fruit  does  not  generally  keep 
as  well  after  having  been  in  cold  storage  as  when  fresh 
from  the  grower,  this  method  is  not  very  serviceable, 
except  to  the  large  grower  or  dealer. 

For  insects  and  diseases  attacking  the  apple  see 
Chapters  XX  and  XXL 


in 

THE  PEjiR 

(Pyrus  communis) 

The  pear,  while  not  generally  considered  one  of 
the  most  healthy  fruits,  is  from  its  peculiar  flavor 
and  qualities,  known  as  melting,  sugary,  buttery,  etc., 
a  fruit  much  liked  by  most  people,  and  eaten  in  its 
fully  ripe  condition  and  in  moderate  quantities  is  a 
healthful  and  delicious  fruit.  In  its  natural  and  unim- 
proved condition,  the  fruit  was  hard  and  composed 
almost  entirely  of  the  gritty  wood  cells,  known  to  bot- 
anists as  sclerogenous  cells,  and  a  harsh  and  astringent 
juice  that  was  anything  but  digestible,  and  which  led 
that  ancient  writer,  Pliny,  to  say,  "All  varieties  what- 
soever are  poor  meat  unless  baked  or  boiled."  "Until 
fully  ripe,  most  varieties  of  pears  have  more  or  less 
of  the  above  qualities,  and  should  be  eaten  with  moder- 
ation during  warm  weather  unless  cooked.  For  pre- 
serves, no  fruit  is  superior  to  it  and  it  is  largely  grown 
in  many  sections  for  this  purpose  alone.  Like  the 
apple,  it  is  a  native  of  Middle  or  Northern  Europe. 
The  tree,  under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  grows 
to  a  large  size,  and  sometimes  reaches  a  greater  age 
than  the  apple,  but  as  it  is  more  subject  to  diseases,  few 
trees  reach  great  age.  In  value  of  products,  the  pear 
stands  fourth  on  the  list  of  large  fruits,  though  it  is 
losing  ground  in  many  places,  except  where  it  is 
grown  for  canning  purposes. 


72  SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CDLTDEE 


THE    ORCHARD 

For  the  best  results,  strong,  rather  moist  land 
should  be  selected,  but  it  is  best  that  it  be  on  an 
elevation  where  there  will  be  a  good  drainage  and  a 
free  circulation  of  air  during  the  growing  season,  under 
which  conditions  there  will  be  less  danger  from  fungous 
diseases.  The  pear  will  grow  well  upon  a  variety  of 
soils,  as  with  the  apple,  but  much  profit  cannot  be 
expected  unless  all  conditions  are  the  most  favorable. 

Trees  for  Planting — The  pear  tree  is  more  difficult 
to  grow  in  the  nursery  than  the  apple,  and  more  care 
must  be  taken  in  growing  them  and  in  the  iseiection  of 
trees  from  the  nursery.  A  medium  to  large  No.  1  two- 
year-old  tree  is  the  best  for  general  planting,  though 
most  No.  1  trees  sold  are  at  least  three  years  old.  The 
preparation  of  the  land,  the  pruning  of  the  tree,  and 
the  planting  have  already  been  described  for  the  apple, 
which  should  be  followed  for  the  treatment  of  the  pear. 

Distance  for  Planting — The  trees  of  most  varieties 
naturally  grow  in  a  pyramidal  form,  and  while  it 
sometimes  grows  to  a  large  size,  it  is  more  compact 
than  the  apple  and  requires  a  less  distance.  Fifteen  by 
15,  or  20x20  feet,  are  the  distances  most  generally 
planted,  according  to  the  variety  and  the  method  of 
training.  Such  varieties  as  the  Seckel,  Giffard,  Bart- 
lett,  and  many  others,  if  kept  well  headed  in,  will  need 
only  the  former  distance,  while  the  larger  growing 
kinds  and  those  trained  with  a  broad  head  will  need 
the  latter  distance. 

Pruning — During  the  first  few  years  of  its  growth 
after  planting  in  the  orchard,  the  pear  tree  has  a 
tendency  to  growth  of  only  a  few  central  shoots  and 
with  little  growth  of  laterals.  All  of  these  strong  cen- 
tral shoots  must  be  checked  by  pinching  as  soon  as 
this  tendencv  is  discovered,  but  one  leader  or  central 


THE    PEAR  73 

shoot  being  allowed  to  grow  in  advance  of  the  others, 
and  this  shoot  or  center  should  be  kept  all  through  the 
life  of  the  tree,  and  whenever  any  laterals  grow  beyond 
it  they  should  be  checked,  thus  forcing  the  growth  into 
the  lower  branches.  If  proper  attention  is  given  to 
the  training  of  the  tree  while  young,  very  little  after 
pruning  will  be  required. 

Age  of  Bearing — The  pear  tree  may  be  expected 
to  produce  paying  crops  of  fruit  at  an  earlier  age  than 
the  apple,  i.  e.,  from  five  to  eight  years  from  planting, 
according  to  the  variety,  and  unless  attacked  by  disease 
may  be  expected  to  bear  for  fifty  or  more  years.  Like 
the  apple,  it  generally  produces  fruit  only  in  alternate 
years,  unless  the  land  is  kept  rich,  well  cultivated  and 
the  fruit  thinned.  The  cause  of  this  condition  is  the 
same  as  with  the  apple  and  the  remedy  is  the  same. 

VARIETIES 

In  form,  size  and  color  of  the  fruit  the  pear  does 
not  vary  much  from  the  apple,  but  in  the  color 
of  the  branches,  the  appearance  of  the  leaves  and  its 
habit  of  growth,  the  variations  are  much  greater;  so 
much  so  in  many  cases  that  most  varieties  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  expert  from  the  appearance  of 
the  leaves  or  twigs  alone.  Varieties  are  generally 
classed  as  summer,  autumn  and  winter.  Of  the  varie- 
ties that  will  succeed  in  all  localities  it  will  be  impos- 
sible to  give  a  satisfactory  list,  and  the  reader  is  again 
referred  to  his  own  State  experiment  station  workers, 
the  following  lists  being  given  as  those  in  most  gen- 
eral cultivation  throughout  the  country  and  possessing 
valuable  qualities. 

SUMMER    PEARS 

Ansault — A  pear  of  medium  size,  light  greenish- 
yellow,  mostly  covered  with  thin  russet,  melting,  juicy, 


74          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

and  fine  grained.  Tree  a  poor  grower  and  must  be 
top-grafted  on  to  make  a  strong,  upright  tree.  Bears 
young. 

Clapp — While  not  a  variety  of  much  value  for 
general  market,  from  its  vigorous  growth,  its  large  size 
and  good  quality,  it  is  valuable  for  home  use  or  a  local 
market  when  properly  ripened.  The  tree  is  very  vigor- 
ous in  growth,  the  fruit  is  of  large  size  and  of  good 
quality  when  picked  from  the  tree  as  soon  as  fully 
grown,  but  before  the  wormy  specimens  turn  yellow. 
In  this  condition  it  will  color  beautifully,  will  not  rot 
at  the  core,  and  be  very  high  flavored.  This  variety 
makes  a  good  stock  for  such  varieties  as  the  Ansault, 
Bosc  and  other  poor  growing  kinds. 

Giffard — Of  medium  size;  in  color  and  form  like 
the  Bartlett,  but  with  more  blush  on  the  exposed  side. 
Tree  rather  slender  in  growth  and  moderately  produc- 
tive. In  quality  one  of  the  best  of  its  season. 

Margaret — Another  pear  of  medium  size  and  of 
greenish-yellow  color  with  a  brownish-red  cheek  and 
covered  with  greenish  dots.  Flesh  fine,  melting,  juicy 
and  of  first  quality.  Tree  vigorous  and  productive. 

AUTUMN     PEARS 

Bartteti — Probably  the  best  known  pear  and  largely 
grown  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  It  is  among 
the  pears  what  the  Baldwin  is  among  the  apples,  and 
the  Concord  is  among  the  grapes.  It  is  too  well  known 
to  need  description.  The  tree  is  not  very  vigorous, 
but  is  hardy  and  productive,  and  often  overbears;  a 
.fault  that  may  be  very  easily  remedied  by  thinning  the 
fruit,  and  giving  an  abundance  of  plant  food  the  bear- 
ing year.  It  ripens  in  September,  but  by  putting  into 
cold  storage  as  soon  as  mature,  it  may  be  kept  from 
four  to  six  weeks  and  sold  when  the  market  is  not 
well  supplied  and  much  better  prices  be  obtained. 


THE    PEAR  75 

Bosc — This  is  a  large,  light  russet  pear,  with  a 
large  body  and  a  neck  that  tapers  into  a  very  long 
stem;  the  flesh  is  white,  juicy,  melting  and  of  fine 
quality.  The  fruit  is  very  large  and  heavy  and  liable 
to  be  blown  off  by  heavy  winds,  and  the  trees  should 
be  trained  low  to  prevent  this.  It  is  one  of  the  best 
fall  varieties  and  always  sells  at  good  prices  when  well 
grown.  In  Xew  England  it  ripens  in  October,  but 
may  be  kept  in  the  same  way  that  the  Bartlett  is 
carried  over  a  glut  and  the  price  very  much  increased. 
The  tree  is  rather  weak  in  growth,  especially  when 
young,  and  to  get  the  best  results  should  be  top-grafted 
on  some  strong  growing  variety  like  the  Clapp,  Flemish 
Beauty,  etc.  The  Kieffer  has  been  recommended  for 
this  purpose  but  has  not  been  successfully  used  in 
the  East. 

Seckel — A  small,  light  cinnamon  colored  pear 
with  a  blush  on  the  exposed  side  and  of  the  finest 
quality.  The  tree  is  very  stocky  and  compact  and  a 
vigorous  grower  and  regular  bearer.  The  fruit  is  small, 
unless  very  severely  thinned,  but  when  well  grown 
always  sells  at  a  good  price. 

Sheldon — A  large,  round,  russet  pear  o-f  the  best 
quality.  The  tree  is  a  good  grower,  productive  and 
hardy.  The  color  is  not  attractive,  but  where  known, 
it  sells  at  a  good  price. 

Anjou — A  large,  oblate-pyriform  pear,  yellow,  with 
blush  on  the  exposed  side.  Some  seasons  this  variety 
ripens  to  be  of  good  quality,  but  it  is  more  often  of 
poor  quality  and  unsatisfactory.  It  comes  into  bearing 
late  and  is  not  very  productive. 

Kieffer — There  are  probably  more  trees  of  this 
variety  planted  the  country  over  than  of  any  other 
kind,  and  it  is  no  doubt  a  very  profitable  kind  to  grow 
for  canning,  but  the  quality  is»  so  poor  in  most  places 
that  if  sold  for  table  use  it  will  lessen  the  demand  for 


76          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

this  fruit.     "We  would  not  advise  its  planting  except 
for  canning  purposes. 

WINTER     PEARS 

Dana's  Hovey — A  small  pear  resembling  the  Seckel 
in  form  and  appearance  but  larger  and  with  less  of  the 
brown  or  russet  color.  The  quality  is  very  much  like 
the  latter  and  the  tree  is  of  the  same  habit  of  growth. 
When  properly  thinned,  so  as  to  grow  to  large  size,  it 
sells  at  the  highest  price. 

Lawrence — Medium  in  size,  resembling  the  Bartlett 
in  form,  but  smaller.  The  tree  is  compact  in  growth, 
very  hardy  and  productive.  A  good  early  winter  pear. 

Additional  varieties  to  be  recommended  are 
Worden  Seckel,  Patrick  Barry. 

HARVESTING,    STORING,    MARKETING 

Gathering  and  Ripening — All  varieties  of  pears, 
with  one  or  two  exceptions,  are  of  better  quality  if  picked 
from  the  tree  before  quite  ripe,  or  when  the  wormy 
specimens  are  beginning  to  mellow,  or  with  some  even 
earlier.  Varieties,  like  the  Clapp,  that  rot  at  the  core 
as  soon  as  fully  matured,  need  to  be  picked  fully  two 
weeks  before  they  would  mellow  on  the  tree.  The 
fruit  should  be  left  on  the  tree  until  fully  grown, 
but  then  be  gathered  as  soon  as  possible  and  be  put 
into  a  cool,  dark  place  until  it  is  to  be  sold.  It  is  the 
practice  of  some  growers  to  pick  the  trees  over  twice, 
taking  all  the  largest  specimens  first,  and  then  allowing 
the  balance  to  grow  for  a  time.  This  practice  applies 
to  the  fall  varieties,  but  winter  fruit  must  be  picked 
before  severe  freezing  weather. 

Marketing — For  the  local  market  there  is  nothing 
better  than  the  bushel  box,  and  even  for  a  long  distance 
it  is  as  good  as  the  barrel.  To  present  the  fruit  in 


THE    PEAR  77 

the  best  condition,  the  bottom  of  the  box  is  taken  off, 
the  cover  nailed  on  and  the  fruit  faced  on  the  cover. 
When  the  box  is  full  and  the  last  layer  is  well  leveled 
off,  the  bottom  is  securely  nailed  on  so  that  when  the 
top  is  taken  off,  the  fruit  presents  a  regular  and  even 
appearance.  The  corrugated  paper  board  cover  is  very 
valuable  in  preventing  injury  to  the  fruit  when  pressed 
firmly  into  the  box.  A  cold  storage  room  is  more  im- 
portant in  handling  pears  than  with  the  apple,  because 
of  the  short  time  the  fruit  will  keep,  and  only  a  few 
varieties  being  grown,  nearly  all  of  one  kind  come  into 
the  market  at  once.  To  prevent  a  glut  much  of  the  crop 
must  be  held  until  the  market  is  cleared  and  there  is 
a  decided  demand,  when  good  prices  will  generally 
follow.  The  cold  storage  house,  described  tinder  the 
apple,  is  equally  well  adapted  to  the  keeping  of  pears. 
For  insects  and  diseases  attacking  the  penr,  see 
XX  and  XXI. 


IV 

THE  PEACH 

(Prunus  Persica) 

In  relative  importance  as  a  money  crop  and  as  a 
home  fruit  the  peach  stands  next  to  the  apple  in  the 
United  States  and  its  importance  is  gaining  more  and 
more  as  we  become  more  skillful  in  caring  for  it.  Our 
ideas  as  to  the  best  part  of  the  country  in  which  this 
most  luscious  fruit  will  grow  have  undergone  a  great 
change  in  a  few  years  past,  for,  instead  of  thinking 
that  it  will  grow  only  in  certain  favored  localities,  we 
now  find  it  succeeding  in  almost  every  part  of  the  coun- 
try from  Canada  to  Mexico,  and  large  areas  are  being 
planted  where  it  was  supposed  a  few  years  ago  that  the 
peach  could  not  be  profitably  grown. 

The  peach  is  a  native  of  Southern  Asia  and  China, 
but  the  trees  grow  equally  well  in  proper  soiHn  Canada 
as  in  Texas,  though  the  fruit  buds  are  not  hardy  where 
the  temperature  remains  lower  than  eighteen  below  zero 
for  more  than  a  few  hours  at  a  time.  To  grow  the 
trees  so  that  they  shall  withstand  the  changes  of  our 
climate  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States, 
it  is  necessary  to  plant  on  high  elevations,  in  rather 
light  soil  and  in  full  exposure  to  air  and  sunlight.  To 
reach  its  greatest  perfection  the  fruit  must  be  ripened 
on  the  trees,  and  with  the  modern  facilities  for  trans- 
portation in  refrigerator  cars  it  may  be  allowed  to 
become  nearly  ripe  and  yet  be  carried  a  long  distance 
to  market.  It  is  best,  however,  in  this  business  to  give 
the  greatest  attention  to  the  local  market,  for  the  best 


THE    PEACH  79 

prices  will  be  obtained  there,  the  cost  of  transportation 
being  less,  and  the  fruit  will  give  the  best  satisfaction 
because  the  quality  is  much  better  than  anything  that 
can  be  put  into  the  market  from  a  distance. 

THE    ORCHARD 

The  peach  orchard  should  be  located  on  high  land 
with  a  full  exposure  to  the  west,  northwest  or  north- 
east, but  not  to  the  south,  unless  on  the  top  of  a  hill 
with  full  exposure  to  air.  The  soil  may  be  a  sandy 
loam,  clay  loam  or  even  of  clay,  if  it  is  thoroughly 
underdrained  and  is  not  too  much  enriched  before  the 
trees  come  into  bearing,  but  the  ideal  soil  is  a  light 
one  of  good  strength,  with  a  clay  subsoil  and  with  many 
small  stones  well  mixed  in  it  to  give  quick  drainage 
and  to  furnish  the  mineral  food  that  is  needed  for 
fruit  of  the  best  quality.  Some  of  the  best  orchards  in 
the  country  are  growing  on  very  poor  soil,  and  this 
kind  of  soil  has  many  advantages.  It  is  cheap,  the 
trees  do  not  make  an  overgrowth,  but  sufficient  growth 
can  be  made  by  the  application  of  plant  food,  the  buds 
are  hardier,  the  fruit  is  of  better  quality,  bnt  the  cost 
of  growing  is  greater  than  on  stronger  land. 

Distance  for  Planting — The  distance  the  peach  is 
planted  varies  with  the  variety,  the  soil  and  the  method 
of  pruning  from  12x12  feet  to  15x15  feet,  or  even  20x 
20  feet.  In  some  cases  they  are  planted  double  thick, 
one  way,  i.  e.,  7  1-2x15,  10x15,  or  10x20  feet,  and  when 
the  trees  begin  to  crowd  so  as  to  injure  each  other,  one- 
half  of  those  in  each  row  are  cut  out.  This  is  a  very 
satisfactory  way  if  the  grower  will  act  promptly  and 
cut  out  the  surplus  trees  at  the  proper  time. 

Trees  for  Planting — Most  growers  prefer  medium 
or  small  trees  (No.  2)  for  orchard  planting,  because 
they  cost  less,  the  freight  charges  are  less,  there  are 
Konerally  more  dormant  buds  on  the  central  shoot  and 


80 


SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 


therefore  the  head  can  be  more  certainly  formed  just 
where  it  is  desired.     This  is  shown  at  Figure  41,  a, 
while  Figure  42  shows  a  No.  1  tree.     The  very  small 
trees  of  any  lot,  however, 
are    probably    those    that 
were  budded  on  the  weaker 
growing    seedlings,    their 
growth    having    been    in- 
/          fluenced  by  the  stock,  and 
for  this  reason  it  would  be 
better  to  grow  trees  rather 
closely   and   on   soil   that 
will  produce  a  rather  small 
growth  and  select  the  best 
of  these.  To  produce  such 
trees  a  limited  amount  of  nitrogen  should  be  used  in  the 
fertilizer,  with  a  liberal  amount  of  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid,  which  will  tend  to  give  a  hardy  stock. 
Preparation  of  the  tree   for  planting  is  a  very 
important   matter   and   there   are   many 
different  ideas  in  regard  to  the  best  way 
of  doing  this.     The  common  practice  is 
to  cut  off  all  of  the  lateral  shoots  and  the 
main  stalk  (Figure  43,  a)  to  about  one,  two 
or  three  feet  in  hight,  according  to  the 
hight  the  head  is  to  be  formed.     Another 
method  practiced  by  the  writer  is  to  cut 
the  top  down  to  about  three  inches  of  the 
point  where  the  bud  was  inserted  and  let 
only   one    bud    grow    into    a   new   tree. 
(Figure  43,   &.)      By  this 
method  lateral  branches  can 
be  formed  just  where   de- 
sired along  a  central  shoot, 

• 
8S    Smi    m 


1- 


Fig.  43  ,a,  Peach 
Tree  Trimmed 

to  whip  will  be  less  likely  to  break 


ig'  43>  b>  Peach 
Tree  Cut  Back 

to  stub 


THE     PEACH   ,  81 

down  from  a  weight  of  fruit  than  upon  a  head  formed  in 
the  ordinary  way.  But  whatever  method  is  practiced, 
the  head  should  be  formed  at  the  earliest  possible  time 
and  a  central  growth  be  developed  from  which  the 
laterals  shall  come  out  on  all  sides  of  the  tree  and  at  it 
little  distance  apart.  During  the  summer  only  those 
branches  should  be  allowed  to  grow  that  are  needed  to 
establish  the  head  and  all  others  be  pinched  off  before 
they  have  taken  the  strength  of  needed  parts  of  the  tree. 

At  the  end  of  the  second  season  or  before  the 
growth  of  the  third  begins,  the  young  trees  should  be 
put  in  as  perfect  form  as  is  possible,  as  a  rule  cutting 
back  the  young  wood  about  one-half,  varying  this,  how- 
ever, to  give^perfect  form  to  the  tree. 

Orchard  Care — The  planting  of  the  tree  and  after 
care  is  practically  the  same  as  for  the  apple,  with  slight 
variations  as  to  pruning  and  cultivation.  The  habit 
of  the  peach  tree  is  such  that  the  growth  is  made  largely 
at  the  ends  of  the  leading  branches,  so  that  in  a  few 
years,  if  unpruned,  the  branches  become  long  and  with 
few  laterals,  so  that  when  loaded  with  fruit  the  trees 
break  very  easily.  To  overcome  this  habit  severe  prun- 
ing must  be  practiced.  This  is  done  in  several  ways, 
some  cutting  back  all  of  the  last  season's  growth  one- 
half,  but  if  this  is  done  by  rule  the  tree  will  be  irregular 
in  form  and  too  many  small  shoots  will  be  developed 
in  tufts  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  that  will  require 
much  labor  to  thin  out,  or  the  work  will  be  neglected 
and  poor  growth  of  the  tree  and  fruit  also  will  be  the 
result.  In  this  work  it  is  better  to  first  cut  out  any 
large  branches  that  may  make  the  head  of  the  tree 
too  close  or  give  it  an  imperfect  form  and  then  head 
back  some  of  the  strongest  shoots,  not  many,  which 
will  tend  to  increase  the  growth  of  the  remaining  lat- 
erals, and  the  fruit  will  be  so  distributed  over  the  tree 
as  not  to  be  easily  broken  down  by  weight  of  fruit  or 


82  SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 

ice.  Figure  44  shows  a  four-year-old  tree  at  the 
end  of  the  season,  and  Figure  4£  the  same  pruned  for 
fifth  season's  growth.  Figure  46  shows  an  unpruned 
tree  of  same  age,  and  Figure  47  a  three-year-old  peach 
tree  in  foliage. 

Cultivation — While  we  often  find  peach  trees  of 
great  age  growing  in  the  grass  without  any  care,  there 


Fig.  44— Peach  Tree  Before  Pruning 

are  few  orchards  where  this  method  of  care  has  been 
profitable.  It  is,  with  few  exceptions,  only  by  con- 
stant cultivation  and  care  that  we  can  expect  large 
fruit  and  an  abundance  of  it,  but  this  work  can  be  so 
cheaply  done  with  the  tools  described  for  the  cultivation 


THE     PEACH 


83 


of  the  apple,  and  when  so  cultivated  so  much  less  fer- 
tilizer is  needed  that  it  is  practiced  by  most  successful 
peach  growers.  Cover  crops  have  come  to  play  such  an 
important  part  in  the  question  of  fertilization,  of  plant 
food  and  the  prevention  of  the  washing  of  the  soil  on 


Fig.  45— Peach  Tree  Pruned 

hilly  land,  that  I  wish  to  call  attention  to  this  matter 
as  discussed  on  Pages  32-34. 

Mr.  A.  A.  Marshall  of  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  has  an 
orchard  of  over  6000  peach  trees  in  the  most  perfect 
condition,  growing  in  turf.  (Figure  48.)  These  are 
of  three,  four  and  five  years'  growth  and  are  in  condi- 
tion to  produce  a  large  crop  of  the  largest  fruit  of 
fine  color  and  quality.  A  five-year-old  peach  orchard  in 


81 


SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 


turf  is  seen  in  Figure  49.  The  grass  is  cut  with  a  mow- 
ing machine  as  often  as  the  cutter  bar  will  work  under 
it — about  three  times  each  season — and  allowed  to  lie 
on  the  ground  to  decay,  thus  nothing  but  a  crop  of 
fruit  is  carried  from  the  land  and  the  growth  of  trees 


Fig.  46-Peach  Tree  Not  Headed  In 

is  kept  up  by  the  application  of  bone,  potash,  phos- 
phoric acid,  lime  and  magnesia,  using  an  amount  aver- 
aging from  twenty  to  fifty  dollars'  worth  per  acre, 
according  to  the  season  and  the  crop.  By  this  method 


THE     PEACH 


85 


cheap  land  can  be  utilized,  but  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  it  will  require  more  plant  food  to  produce 
a  satisfactory  growth  in  turf  land  than  under  constant 
cultivation,  and  that  in  time  of  drouth  there  is  more 
danger  of  injury.  After  trees  have  become  established, 
however,  by  close  and  frequent  cutting  of  the  grass  there 
is  less  danger  than  to  young  trees.  With  skillful  man- 


PiK.  47— Three-Year-Old  Peach  Tree  in  Foliage 

agement  and  good  judgment  this  method  can  be  recom- 
mended, but  under  neglect  neither  this  method  nor  any 
other  will  succeed. 

Fertilization — The  peach  is  a  fruit  that  does  not 
require  much  fertilizer  in  good,  ordinary  soil  until  the 
trees  begin  to  bear,  if  the  land  is  frequently  cultivated, 


88  SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

but  when  a  crop  of  fruit  is  set,  unless  the  fruit  is 
thinned  severely,  a  liberal  supply  must  be  used  to  carry 
the  crop  through  and  not  weaken  the  trees.  The  best 
fertilizers  to  use  are  those  rich  in  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid,  with  only  nitrogen  enough  to  make  a 
moderately  vigorous  growth  of  wood.  These  materials 
may  be  put  on  in  any  forms  that  are  most  available, 
but  the  quantity  must  be  determined  by  the  grower, 
who  alone  knows  the  condition  of  his  soil  and  trees, 
and  upon  his  good  judgment  will  depend  his  success. 

VARIETIES 

The  number  of  varieties  of  peaches  has  become  so 
large  that  the  beginner  finds  much  difficulty  in  deciding 
what  kinds  to  plant,  and  yet  when  we  come  to  investi- 
gate we  find  that  there  are  but  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  varieties  planted  by  the  successful  peach 
growers.  The  following  named  varieties  are  among  the 
best  and  most  largely  grown : 

White  Fleshed — Of  the  very  early  varieties  of  this 
group,  including  the  Alexander,  Early  Kivers,  Sneed 
types,  none  will  be  found  profitable,  as  they  are  certain 
to  be  attacked  by  the  brown  rot  nine  years  out  of  ten. 
Those  generally  found  profitable  of  this  group  are 
Mountain  Eose,  Carman,  Champion  and  Oldmixon. 

Yellow  Fleshed — Triumph  (in  a  dry  season  may 
be  of  some  value),  Crawford's  Early,  Crawford's  Late, 
Elberta  and  Crosby  in  Northern  localities.  This  list 
is  purposely  made  very  small  for  the  reason  that  few 
varieties  will  do  equally  well  in  distant  localities  and 
the  grower  must  study  the  varieties  in  his  own  locality 
and  plant  such  as  have  proved  the  most  valuable.  The 
experiment  stations  are  all  making  comparative  tests 
of  the  leading  varieties  that  succeed  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  country  and  can  give  the  best  possible 
advice  as  to  what  will  be  most  profitable. 


THE    PEACH  89 

THINNING    THE    FRUIT 

There  is  no  one  thing  connected  with  the  growth  of 
the  peach  of  so  great  importance  as  thinning.  When 
the  fruit  buds  are  not  destroyed  by  the  cold  or  injured 
by  late  spring  frosts,  the  trees  are  generally  so  loaded 
with  fruit  that,  if  it  is  all  allowed  to  grow,  the  trees 
will  be  so  injured  as  to  be  subject  to  all  the  diseases 
that  so  commonly  attack  the  trees,  while  the  fruit  will 
be  of  little  value  in  the  market.  Thinning  should  be 
done  f.s  soon  as  it  can  be  determined  whether  the  fruit 
is  perfect  or  not,  the  amount  of  thinning  to  be  done 
depending  upon  the  size  and  vigor  of  the  trees,  and 
the  quality  of  fruit  desired.  If  the  largest  and  finest 
fruit  is  desired,  only  a  limited  number  of  specimens 
should  be  allowed  to  remain,  i.  e.,  thin  to  from  five  to 
six  inches  apart,  while,  if  the  trees  are  very  vigorous 
and  only  a  medium  grade  is  desired,  a  distance  of 
from  four  to  five  inches  may  be  the  rule.  The  greatest 
profit  will  come  from  the  more  rigid  thinning.  It 
will  be  found  where  the  trees  are  well  set  with  fruit 
that  the  quantity  will  be  about  as  great  in  one  case  as 
in  the  other,  while  the  larger  the  fruit  the  higher  the 
price  at  which  it  will  sell  and  the  less  the  strain  upon 
the  tree.  In  thinning,  all  poor  or  curculio-stung  spec- 
imens should  be  picked  off,  even  if  the  last  fruit  is 
removed,  for  it  would  be  of  no  value  in  the  market 
and  might  be  a  breeder  of  insects  or  fungi. 

HARVEST    AND    MARKETING 

Much  of  the  profit  of  growing  this  fruit  will 
depend  upon  the  way  in  which  it  is  harvested  and  put 
on  the  market.  To  reach  its  greatest  perfection  the 
fruit  should  be  allowed  to  become  nearly  ripe,  and  be 
picked  and  taken  to  the  market  at  once,  as  it  will  not 
keep  long  after  it  reaches  this  stage.  It  is  the  practice 


90  SUCCESSFUL     J?KUIT     CULTURE 

of  those  who  grow  this  fruit  for  the  local  market  to 
pick  over  the  trees  several  times  to  get  the  fruit  in 
the  best  condition.  In  picking,  each  specimen  is 
examined  on  all  sides  before  it  is  picked  and  if  the 
green  fruit  has  changed  to  a  cream  or  light  yellow,  and 
the  reds  are  well  developed,  it  is  picked.  Some  depend 
upon  the  feeling,  pressing  the  projecting  part  on  one 
side  of  the  suture  in  addition  to  the  change  of  color. 

Package — The  common  peach  basket  is  the  poorest 
package  that  could  be  devised  for  keeping  the  fruit, 
as  well  as  for  harvesting  and  marketing.  It  is  of  such 
form  that  the  fruit  as  it  becomes  ripe  and  soft  settles 


Fig.  50— Georgia  Peach  Basket  and  Crate 

together  and  is  badly  injured  in  the  jar  of  transporta- 
tion. It  is  very  difficult  to  pack  in  wagons  or  cars  and 
occupies  more  space  than  any  other  package.  The  only 
merit  it  possesses  is  its  cheapness,  and  it  has  been  so 
long  in  use  that  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  it  will 
be  replaced  by  a  more  sensible  package.  One  of  the 
best  packages  in  use  is  the  carrier  of  the  Georgia  peach 
growers  (Figure  50),  which  holds  six  baskets  of  about 
three  quarts  each,  or  four  baskets  of  four  quarts  each, 
making  practically  about  the  quantity  that  is  shipped  in 
the  standard  one-half-bushel  peach  basket,  but  its  cost 
is  much  greater,  varying  from  ten  to  fifteen  cents, 


THE     PEACH  91 

according  to  the  locality  and  the  quantity  purchased, 
while  the  peach  basket  may  be  bought  at  from  three 
and  one-half  to  four  cents  by  the  thousand,  or  larger 
lots.  For  long  distance  shipment,  the  carrier  has  now 
been  generally  adopted  and  it  should  not  be  long  before 
all  of  this  crop  will  be  put  up  in  a  better  package  than 
the  common  peach  basket. 

Keeping  the  Fruit — The  practice  of  not  picking 
this  fruit  until  it  is  nearly  ripe,  makes  the  danger 
of  glutting  the  market  much  greater,  and  consequently 
produces  the  necessity  of  providing  some  means  of  hold- 
ing the  crop  beyond  the  natural  season.  This  is  done 
to  a  limited  extent  by  means  of  cold  storage  rooms  or 
refrigerator  cars  in  shipping.  While  this  fruit  does 
not  keep  in  cold  storage  as  well  as  the  apple  or  pear, 
it  can  be  kept  for  a  considerable  time  and  for  the  local 
markets  where  large  quantities  are  grown,  this  is  a  neces- 
sity. The  temperature  at  which  it  will  keep  the  best  is 
from  thirty-two  to  thirty-four  degrees,  and  with  a 
rather  drier  atmosphere  than  for  the  apple. 

For  method  of  propagation,  insects  and  fungous 
diseases  attacking  the  peach,  see  Chapters  XVIII,  XX 
and  XXI. 


THE  APRICOT  AND  NECTARINE 

These  two  fruits  are  little  known  in  the  North 
and  are  seldom  seen  in  our  markets  except  in  a  dried 
state.  This  may  be  from  the  fact  that  as  commonly 
grown  the  trees  are  short  lived,  and  the  fruit  is  of 
rather  poor  quality. 

THE    APEICOT 

The  apricot  is  thought  by  some  botanical  authori- 
ties to  be  a  cross  or  hybrid  between  the  European  plum, 
Prunus  domestica,  and  the  peach,  Prunus  Persica,  and 
by  others  to  be  a  distinct  species.  It  matters  little  to 
the  practical  grower  which  view  is  correct. 

I  incline  to  the  latter  theory,  as  its  specific  fea- 
tures are  as  marked  as  many  of  the  most  distinct 
species  of  other  plants,  and  it  is  a  question  at  what 
time  all  species  of  plants  may  have  been  evolved  by 
the  process  of  hybridization  or  environment  to  their 
present  condition.  I  have  never  known  either  the  apri- 
cot or  nectarine  to  produce  plants  from  seed  other 
than  their  specific  types,  though  I  have  grown  many 
seedlings  of  both. 

As  grown  in  the  Eastern  States  the  fruit  is  not  of 
as  good  quality  as  that  from  California,  but  in  a  warm 
soil,  rather  thin,  with  a  full  exposure  to  the  west,  the 
trees  grow  rapidly,  and  with  proper  thinning,  pruning 
and  spraying  very  satisfactory  results  may  be  obtained. 
.  The  peach  stock  is  most  largely  used  upon  which 
to  bud  these  fruits.  The  plum  stock  is  recommended 
for  heavy  soil,  but  I  know  of  no  case  where  the  apricot 


THE    APRICOT  93 

has  succeeded  on  heavy  soils,  and, 'therefore,  consider  the 
peach  the  best  stock.  The  greatest  obstacle  to  be  over- 
come is  the  brown  fruit  rot  or  monilia  that  is  so  destruc- 
tive to  the  early  varieties  of  peaches  and  most  of  the 
European  and  Japanese  plums. 

To  overcome  this  pest  the  trees  should  be  heavily 
sprayed  in  March  or  early  April  with  the  standard  bor- 
deaux— six  pounds  copper  sulphate,  six  pounds  lime  and 
fifty  gallons  water — and  then  again  with  the  same  just 
before  the  blossoms  open.  After  the  petals  have  fallen 
spraying  with  diluted  bordeaux  (1:1:  50)  at  intervals 
of  from  two  to  four  weeks,  should  be  kept  up  until 
the  fruit  is  nearly  full  grown.  If  the  fruit  begins  to 
rot  as  it  approaches  ripening,  spraying  just  after  every 
rain  with  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate,  four  ounces  to 
fifty  gallons,  will  check  it.  Thinning  the  fruit  as  is  done 
in  growing  peaches  and  plums,  must  be  practiced,  to 
help  prevent  this  rotting,  strengthen  the  growth  of  the 
tree  and  improve  the  size  and  quality  of  the  fruit. 

Sometimes  the  trees  are  winterkilled,  but  when 
planted  in  light  soil,  as  previously  mentioned,  and  an 
abundance  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  us*ed,  with  only 
enough  nitrogenous  matter  to  make  a  moderate  growth, 
they  will  make  a  hard,  short-jointed  growth  that  will 
be  seldom  injured  by  the  most  severe  winter  weather, 
and  will  live  as  long  as  peach  trees.  The  pruning  re- 
quired is  practically  the  same  that  is  given  the  peach 
by  the  most  successful  growers  of  that  fruit.  Head  in 
the  most  rampant  shoots  so  as  to  encourage  a  close, 
short-jointed  growth. 

The  number  of  varieties  that  are  satisfactory  in  the 
East  is  very  small,  yet  even  many  of  those  of  poor  qual- 
ity are  valuable  for  canning  purposes  because  of  the 
peculiar  flavor  and  of  the  ease  with  which  the  stone  or 
pit  separates  from  the  flesh.  Among  the  best  in  quality 
and  the  most  hardy  are  Early  Montgamet,  "Moorpark 


94          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

and  Peach  apricot.  Some  of  the  Eussian  varieties  are 
highly  recommended  as  hardy  and  productive,  but  in 
my  experience  they  are  neither  as  hardy  nor  of  as  good 
quality  as  those  mentioned  above. 

THE    NECTAEINE 

This  fruit  is  perhaps  less  known  even  than  the 
apricot,  either  in  the  fresh  or  dried  state.  In  appear- 
ance of  tree  and  habit  of  growth  it  is  with  difficulty 
distinguished  from  the  peach,  being  practically  a 
smooth-skinned  peach.  It  is  a  distinct  species,  repro- 
ducing the  type  from  seed.  The  tree  is  about  as  hardy 
as  the  peach  and  thrives  best  under  the  conditions  de- 
scribed for  the  apricot.  It  is  subject' to  the  same  insect 
and  fungous  pests  and  spraying  must  be  done  with  the 
same  material  and  at  the  same  times  as  for  the  peach 
and  apricot. 

This  fruit  and  the  apricot  also  are  much  injured  by 
the  plum  curculio,  and  this  insect  must  be  kept  from 
injuring  the  crops  by  jarring  the  trees  very  early  in 
the  morning  qvery  other  day  for  two  weeks  and  catching 
on  sheets  or  frames.  Or  arsenate  of  lead  may  be  used 
as  the  fruit  reaches  the  size  of  small  peas,  which  is  an 
effectual  remedy  if  all  other  stone  fruit  trees  in  the 
vicinity  are  sprayed  with  some  arsenate,  and  is  much 
cheaper  than  jarring.  If  only  a  few  trees  are  sprayed 
the  insects  coming  from  those  near  by  would  be  able 
to  lay  their  eggs  before  they  would  eat  enough  of  the 
poison  to  destroy  them.  Among  the  best  varieties  are 
the  Boston,  Pitmaston  and  Eivers 


VI 
THE  PLUM 

There  is  no  more  delicious  or  nutritious  fruit  than 
the  plum,  and  it  is  largely  planted,  but  owing  to  the 
numerous  insect  and  fungous  pests  that  attack  it,  the 
crop  of  fruit  is  generally  very  small.  On  the  Pacific 
Coast,  where  no  fungous  pests  develop,  on  account  of 
the  dry  atmosphere,  this  fruit  is  grown  largely  and 
is  known  as  the  prune,  and  prune  growing  has  become 
an  important  industry.  The  term  "prune,"  though 
commonly  applied  to  the  dried  fruit,  is  equally  applica- 
ble to  all  the  varieties  of  the  European  or  "domestica" 
plums.  All  varieties,  however,  do  not  make  good  dried 
prunes ;  those  containing  about  twelve  per  cent  of  sugar 
will  make  "prunes"  that  will  keep  without  fermentation, 
while  those  containing  less  sugar  will  soon  ferment. 
New  impetus  has  been  given  plum  growing  in  the  East . 
by  the  introduction  of  the  Japanese  plums  and  the  many 
hybrids  produced  between  this  and  the  European  and 
American  varieties. 

The  varieties  of  plums  in  cultivation  may  be 
grouped  into  three  classes,  i.  e.,  European  (Prunus 
domestica),  Japanese  (Prunus  triflora),  and  American 
(Prunus  Americana  and  other  species). 

EUROPEAN     PLUMS 

The  European  varieties  are  represented  by  the  com- 
mon blue,  yellow  and  red  plums  of  the  garden,  and 
produce  fruit  of  the  finest  quality,  but  are  so  subject 


9G  SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

to  the  attack  of  insects  and  fungous  pests  that  they 
cannot  be  grown  except  by  the  best  attention  and  skill. 
The  best  soil  for  the  growth  of  this  group  is  a  deep, 
moist  loam,  though  they  will  grow  under  a  great  variety 
of  conditions.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the 
trees  be  planted  in  full  exposure  to  air  and  sunlight, 
which  will  in  a  great  measure  counteract  the  tendency 
to  rotting  of-  the  fruit  and  the  growth  of  the  black  knot. 
It  is  better  to  plant  on  a  light  soil  with  such  an  expos- 
ure, than  on  heavy  land  if  low  and  in  a  close,  sheltered 
place. 

JAPANESE    PLUMS 

The  Japanese  plums  are  as  vigorous  in  growth  as 
the  peach,  begin  bearing  as  young  and  are  being  planted 
largely.  In-  quality  the  fruit  is  not  as  good  as  the 
European  varieties,  and  it  is  subject  to  the  same 
diseases  and  insects,  but  owing  to  the  short  time  it 
requires  to  grow  the  trees  to  fruiting  and  their  great 
productiveness,  they  may  perhaps  be  more  profitable 
than  the  former,  even  with  the  varieties  now  grown, 
and  if  out  of  the  many  new  varieties  now  being  offered, 
with  great  claims  for  quality,  are  found  those  equal 
to  the  best  of  the  European,  this  group  may  entirely 
supersede  the  latter.  The  soil  best  suited  to  the  growth 
of  the  Japanese  plums  is  about  the  same  as  that  for 
the  peach,  but  perhaps  a  little  richer  and  deeper.  Nearly 
all  varieties  are  subject  to  the  brown  rot,  the  black  knot 
and  the  shot-hole  fungus,  and  possibly  to  the  disease 
known  as  the  peach  yellows,  and  it  is  important  that 
they  be  planted  in  full  exposure  to  air  and  sunlight. 
This  group  is  largely  propagated  upon  the  peach 
stock,  and  generally  does  well  on  this  stock,  but 
whether  this,  the  American  or  the  Myrobalan  stocks 
are  the  best  no  one  has  conclusively  proved  by  careful 
experiments. 


THE     PLUM  97 


AMERICAN    PLUMS 

The  varieties  of  the  several  species  of  this  group  are 
now  attracting  much  attention  on  account  of  their  great 
hardiness,  productiveness,  and  freedom  from  disease 
and  insect  attack.  The  fruit  is  generally  of  small  or 
medium  size,  the  skin  is  thick  and  the  flesh  acid  and 
clings  very  firmly  to  the  pit  or  stone.  When  fully 
ripe  and  soft,  many  of  the  varieties  are  of  good  quality. 
Nearly  all  of  the  varieties  are  valuable  for  canning. 
The  greatest  promise  of  value  in  this  group  lies  in 
the  possibilities  of  crosses  or  hybrids  with  the  Euro- 
pean and  Japanese  plums,  some  of  which  are  already 
being  largely  planted.  These  varieties  succeed  in  a 
variety  of  soils,  but  will  generally  do  best  in  rather 
moist  land  with  good  exposure.  Many  of  the  varieties 
are  not  self-fertile  and  require  to  be  planted  near  others 
that  will  fertilize  them.  This  subject  is  fully  discussed 
in  Plums  and  Plum  Culture,  by  Prof.  F.  A.  Waugh. 

The  varieties  of  all  of  the  groups  differ  very  much 
in  size  and  habit  of  growth,  and  the  distance  at  which 
they  should  be  planted  is  from  twelve  to  twenty  feet, 
according  to  the  kind.  Two-year-old  trees  of  the  Amer- 
ican and  European  plums  and  one-year-old  of  the  Jap- 
anese are  the  best  for  planting. 

CULTIVATION 

In  order  to  obtain  fruit  of  the  largest  size  and 
best  quality  the  land  must  be  kept  well  cultivated  .or 
enriched,  so  as  to  produce  a  vigorous  growth  of  foliage 
and  wood.  Fertilizers  recommended  for  the  apple  are 
equally  adapted  to  the  plum. 

PRUNING 

Most  of  the  varieties  of  the  plum  require  the  same 
attention  as  to  pruning  and  training  as  the  pear,  hav- 


98  SUCCESSFUL     FJiUIT     CULTURE 

ing  the  same  tendency  to  produce  only  a  few  shoots  the 
first  and  second  years.  It  is  always  better  to  stop  these 
strong,  leading  shoots  during  the  summer  than  to  let 
them  grow  till  fall  and  then  cut  them  off,  thus  wasting 
considerable  wood  growth  which,  if  it  had  been  dis- 
tributed to  the  lateral  branches,  would  in  a  year  or  two 
develop  into  fruit  buds.  In  this  work  of  pruning  the 
aim  should  be  to  obtain  stocky,  low-headed  trees  that 
will  carry  a  heavy  load  of  fruit  and  not  break  down 
and  be  so  low  that  all  the  work  of  thinning,  spraying 
and  harvesting  may  be  easily  and  cheaply  done. 

Age  of  Bearing — The  Japanese  varieties  may  be 
expected  to  produce  some  fruit  two  years  from  planting 
and  full  crops  in  three  or  four  years,  the  European  will 
bear  in  from  four  to  eight  years  and  the  American  in 
about  the  same  time,  but  all  varying  much  in  time, 
according  to  the  variety. 

Thinning  the  Fruit — All  varieties  of  plums  have 
the  tendency  to  overbear,  and  it  becomes  an  absolute 
necessity  to  thin  severely  if  good  fruit  is  expected  and 
the  trees  are  to  be  saved  from  injury  by  overbearing. 
When  the  fruit  is  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  of 
an  inch  in  diameter  all  imperfect  and  insect  stung 
specimens  should  be  picked  off,  one  plum  ^nly  being 
allowed  to  remain  on  each  spur  and  these  not  nearer 
than  from  three  to  five  inches  apart,  according  to  the 
variety  and  the  grade  of  fruit  desired.  If  the  plums 
are  grown  for  canning  purposes  more  fruit  should  be 
allowed  to  remain  (a  small  plum  is  generally  preferred 
for  this  purpose)  than  if  fine  table  fruit  is  desired.  The 
fruit  generally  grows  in  clusters  and  care  is  needed  in 
this  work  that  all  of  the  plums  on  the  spur  are  not 
pulled  off  at  the  first  effort,  but  by  turning  each  plum 
carefully  backward  from  the  cluster  all  but  one  may 
be  removed  without  injury  to  the  rest.  The  earlier 
this  work  can  be  done  the  less  will  be  the  strain  on 


THE     PLUM  99 

the  tree,  but  it  will  be  more  work  to  detect  imperfec- 
tions while  the  fruit  is  small  than  when  it  is  nearly 
grown. 

VARIETIES 

European  Varieties — These  varieties  are  classified 
into  green  or  yellow,  red  and  purple,  though  the  latter 
classes  may  run  together  under  different  conditions 


Fig.  51-FelIenberg  Plum 

of  season  and  crops.  Thus  if  the  Lombard  is  allowed 
to  be  overloaded,  and  the  foliage  is  not  in  full  vigor, 
the  fruit  will  be  red  in  color,  while  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions  and  a  long  season,  some  red  varie- 
ties will  become  purple  or  nearly  black.  Among  the 
best  of  this  type  are : 


THE     PLUM  101 

Green — Green  Gage,  McLaughlin,  Gen.  Hand  and 
Washington. 

Purple — Bradshaw,  Lincoln,  Quackenboss,  Smith's 
Orleans,  Fellenberg  (Figure  51),  Kingston. 

Red — Pond's  Seedling,  Victoria. 

Japanese  Varieties — The  varieties  of  this  group 
vary  in  color  from  yellow  to  very  deep  shades  of  crim- 
son. The  fruit  is  of  much  better  quality  if  allowed 
to  become  soft  on  the  tree,  or  if  kept  a  considerable 


Pig.  53— Hawkeye  Plum 

time  after  being  picked  before  it  is  sold.  As  with  the 
last  group  the  color  of  fruit  depends  much  upon  the 
length  of  the  season  and  the  crop  on  the  trees.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  best :  Abundance,  Red  June, 
Chabot,  Burbank,  Satsuma  (for  canning)  (Figure  52), 
Wickson,  October  Purple.  Many  new  varieties  of  great 
promise  have  been  recently  introduced,  but  their  value 
for  any  given  locality  can  only  be  determined  by  further 
trial  in  each  locality. 


102  SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 

American  Varieties — There  is  more  uncertainty  in 
regard  to  the  value  of  the  varieties  of  this  group  for 
market  than  with  the  other  groups,  from  the  fact  that 
they  have  no  reputation  in  many  of  the  large  markets 
of  the  country,  and  the  people  must  become  acquainted 
with  them  before  they  will  be  in  demand.  Among 
the  best  are  the  following:  Hawkeye  (Figure  53), 
Hammer,  Wildgoose,  Wolf,  Wyant,  etc. 

For  insects  and  fungous  diseases  attacking  the  plum 
see  Chapters  XX  and  XXI. 


VII 

THE  CHERRY 

(Prunus  cerasus  and  P.  avium) 

In  some  sections  of  the  country  cherry  growing  has 
become  a  very  important  branch  of  horticulture,  i.  e., 
on  the  Pacific  Coast,  where  it  is  grown  to  ship  East  and 
for  canning,  New  York  State  and  some  of  the  Middle 
Western  States,  where  it  is  largely  grown  for  the 
canneries.  In  the  older  portions  of  the  country  it  is 
very  little  grown  on*  account  of  the  rotting  of  the  fruit, 
the  black  knot,  and  its  attack  by  the  plum  curculio, 
the  cherry  maggot  and  the  black  aphis.  In  these  sec- 
tions old  trees  are  only  found  growing  in  a  vigorous 
condition  by  the  roadside  and  on  the  lawn,  where  the 
ground  is  rather  rich  and  well  drained  and  yet  where 
they  do  not  make  a  vigorous  growth.  The  fruit  is 
one  of  the  most  delicious,  and  where  the  conditions  are 
favorable  for  its  growth  it  becomes  a  profitable  crop. 

THE     ORCHARD 

The  best  soil  for  the  growth  of  this  fruit  is  one 
rather  light  and  moderately  rich  and  warm.  If  the 
land  is  very  rich  or  moist,  where  the  trees  grow  very 
rapidly,  they  are  soon  injured  by  the  winter  and  after 
three  or  four  seasons  the  trunks  crack  open  on  the  south 
side,  decay  soon  sets  in  and  in  a  few  years  the  trees 
die.  The  remedy  for  this  condition  is  first,  to  plant  on 
light  land  and  fertilize  very  sparingly  and  with  quickly 
soluble  fertilizers,  especially  potash  and  phosphoric  acid, 


104         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

applied  in  the  spring.  Growth  should  be  completed  by 
the  middle  of  September,  and  this  will  be  insured  by 
the  sowing  of  a  cover  crop  about  August  10,  or  by 
ceasing  cultivation  by  the  middle  of  August.  The 
cherry  succeeds  well  under  turf  culture. 

To  prevent  the  cracking  of  the  trunk  on  the  south 
side  a  board  or  stake  should  be  set  up  to  prevent  the 
sun  striking  it  during  the  fall,  winter  and  spring.  The 
disk  ce  for  planting  will  vary  somewhat,  according  to 
the  variety;  those  making  a  large  tree  should  be  set 
twenty  to  twenty-five  feet,  while  the  smaller  kinds  will 
need  only  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet  each  way.  It  is  the 
practice  of  many  orchardists  to  plant  10x10  feet,  or  lOx 
20  feet,  and  when  the  trees  begin  to  come  together,  cut 
out  every  other  one.  For  directions  for  preparing  the 
trees  for  planting,  planting  and  after  care,  see  directions 
for  the  apple.  The  cultivation  of  the  orchard  to  be 
followed  is  also  practically  the  same  as  for  the  apple. 

Pruning — Very  little  pruning  is  required  more 
than  to  direct  the  growth,  so  that  there  shall  be  but 
one  leader  in  case  of  the  sweet  cherries,  which  are  nat- 
urally pyramidal  in  form,  while  the  round-headed 
varieties  may  have  several  main  branches.  Large 
branches  should  never  be  cut  away  from  trees  of  the 
stone  fruits  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

CLASSIFICATION 

The  varieties  of  the  sweet  cherries  (Prunus  avium) 
are  divided  into  two  groups :  The  Heart  cherries,  those 
heart  shaped  in  form,  with  a  very  juicy  and  sweet  flesh 
and  the  tree  of  a  pyramidal  form,  illustrated  by  Gov. 
Wood  and  Black  Tartarian,  and  the  Bigarreau  cherries, 
the  fruit  of  which  is  also  heart  shaped,  but  firm  in 
flesh  and  the  tree  rather  round  and  stocky  in  growth. 
This  group  is  represented  by  the  Napoleon  or  Yellow 
Spanish.  Figure  54  illustrates  a  row  of  sweet  cherries. 


THE     CHERRY  107 

The  varieties  of  sour  cherries  (Prunus  cerasus)  are 
divided  into  two  groups,  the  Duke  and  Morello.  The 
fruit  of  the  former  is  borne  on  stout,  round-headed 
trees,  is  red  or  crimson  in  color  and  not  very  acid, 
while  with  the  latter,  tree  is  small  and  with  slender 
weeping  branches.  The  fruit  is  round,  of  a  bright  red 
color  and  very  acid.  Figure  55  shows  the  characteristics 
of  the  sour  cherry  tree.  The  following  are  among  some 
of  the  best  varieties  of  each  group: 

Heart — Gov.  Wood,  Black  Tartarian,  Downer's 
Late  and  Windsor. 

Bigarreau — Yellow  Spanish,  Cleveland,  Eockport 
and  Schmidt. 

Duke — May  Duke,  Eoyal  Duke. 

Morello — Early  Richmond,  English  Morello,  Mont- 
morency. 

The  fruit  is  marketed  in  several  ways.  In  some 
places  it  is  sold  in  the  common  quart  strawberry  box  and 
put  into  the  bushel  crate  or  carrier,  in  other  localities 
it  is  sold  in  the  four  or  eight-pound  grape  basket,  while 
on  the  Pacific  Coast  it  is  shipped  in  small  shallow  boxes 
holding  two  layers  of  large,  finely-sorted  fruit.  As 
grown  in  the  East,  where  the  fruit  is  likely  to  decay 
quickly,  the  quart  box  is  perhaps  the  best  package  unless 
it  is  to  go  to  canning  factories,  when  the  package  is  of 
no  great  importance,  so  long  as  the  fruit  is  delivered 
in  good  condition  and  will  keep  until  it  is  canned. 

See  methods  of  propagation  in  Chapter  XVIII, 
and  insects  and  fungous  pests  and  their  destruction  in 
Chapters  XX  and  XXI. 


VIII 

THE  QUINCE 

(Cydonia  vulgaris) 

In  the  past  few  years  quince  growing,  as  a  business, 
has  not  been  as  profitable  as  formerly,  owing,  perhaps, 
to  an  oversupply  of  this  fruit,  or  the  abundance  and 
low  price  of  other  fruits.  It  is  not  a  fruit  that  can 
be  used  for  dessert  without  cooking,  and  consequently  is 
not  consumed  largely — only  for  canning,  but  its  aroma 
and  peculiarly  agreeable  flavor  make  it  a  much  prized 
fruit  for  preserves.  As  a  shipping  fruit,  it  is  not  so 
valuable  as  for  the  local  market,  from  the  fact  that 
the  slightest  bruise  or  scratch  disfigures  it,  and  when 
taken  from  the  box  or  barrel,  where  packed  with  pres- 
sure, it  presents  anything  but  a  pleasing  appearance, 
but  where  it  can  be  taken  into  market  in  the  bushel 
box  or  market  basket  it  shows  to  better  advantage  and 
sells  at  good  prices. 

THE     ORCHARD 

The  best  soil  for  the  production  of  this  fruit  is  a 
deep,  rich,  moist  loam;  not  one  containing  stagnant 
water,  but  well  drained,  naturally  or  otherwise.  Trees 
two  or  three  years  from  the  root  graft  or  cutting  are 
in  the  proper  condition  for  planting.  They  are  trained 
in  two  ways,  i.  e.,  in  the  tree  form  and  bush  form.  The 
advantages  of  the  tree  form  are  that  cultivation  can 
be  done  better  and  the  trees  present  a  better  appearance, 
while  if  the  borers  attack  the  trunk  they  can  be  easily 


THE     QUINCE 


10D 


discovered  and  destroyed.  The  bush  form  is  the  most 
natural  to  this  fruit,  and  if  when  trained  to  the  tree 
form  suckers  are  not  cut  away  as  they  come  out,  it  will 
soon  take  the  bush  form,  and  it  may  be  grown  in  this 
form  with  less  labor,  while  if  borers  get  in  between 
the  trunks  it  is  more  difficult  to  get  at  them.  If,  how- 
ever, one  trunk  should  be  killed  there  will  be  others  to 


Fig.  56— Low=Branching  Quince  Tree 

take  the  growth  of  the  root  and  the  tree -is  continued. 
A  low-branching  five-year-old  quince  tree  is  seen  in 
Figure  56. 

Distance  for  Planting — Ten  by  ten  or  12x12  feet 
are  good  distances,  according  to  the  soil.  The  roots  of 
the  quince  are  very  fine  and  numerous  and  consequently 
it  is  easily  planted.  No  fruit  responds  more  quickly  to 


110  SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 

good  cultivation  and  fertilization  than  the  quince,  but 
nitrogenous  manures  should  not  be  used  too  freely  dur- 
ing the  summer.  If  stable  manure  is  used,  it  had 
best  be  put  on  in  the  fall  and  late  cultivation  should 
be  avoided,  as  a  late  growth  tends  to  increase  the 
danger  of  an  attack  of  the  fire  blight,  which  is  often 
very  destructive  to  the  quince.  For  the  production  of 
fruit  from  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  pounds  of 
sulphate  of  potash  and  one-fourth  to  one-half  ton  of 
fine  ground  bone  will  make  a  good  dressing,  according 
to  the  condition  of  the  land  and  the  growth  of  the  trees. 


Fig.  57-Orange  Quince  Fig.  58-Rea's  Qu 


Pruning — Little  or  no  pruning  is  required  after  tht 
trees  have  become  established,  except  to  cut  off  the, 
suckers  from  the  trunk  or  roots  if  they  become  too 
numerous  and  to  keep  the  head  in  good  form.  In  good 
soil  the  quince  begins  to  bear  paying  crops  of  fruit  in 
from  four  to  six  years  from  planting  in  the  orchard  and 
continues  to  bear,  with  good  treatment,  for  from  twenty 
to  forty  years. 

Harvesting — The  fruit  should  not  be  gathered  until 
it  begins  to  turn  yellow,  when  it  may  be  all  picked  at 
once.  Like  the  varieties  of  the  apples  with  yellow 
skin,  it  must  be  handled  with  greatest  care,  as  even 


THE     QUINCE  111 

slight  bruises  or  scratches  make  the  skin  turn  brown. 
The  fruit  may  be  kept  a  month  or  more  in  a  cool 
cellar,  or  longer  in  cold  storage,  but  there  is  little 
demand  for  it  after  the  fall  canning  has  been  done. 

VARIETIES 

There  are  but  few  varieties  in  cultivation,  and  these 
show  less  distinctive  characteristics  than  those  of  any 
other  kind  of  fruit.  Among  the  best  are  the  following : 

Orange  (Figure  57) — This  is  an  old  standard 
sort,  nearly  round  in  form,  of  a  bright  yellow  color  and 
fine  quality. 

Rea's  (Figure  58) — One  of  the  best  in  cultivation; 
of  the  largest  size,  of  good  quality  and  comes  into 
bearing  early. 

Champion — A  late  variety  that  is  valuable  when 
the  demand  continues  into  November,  but  not  as 
valuable  as  the  last  two  mentioned. 


IX 

THE  MULBERRY 

CHINESE  (Morus  alba  var.  muUicauUs) 
RUSSIAN  (Mortis  alba  var.  Tartarica) 

Commercially,  the  fruit  of  the  mulberry  is  of  little 
value.  Some  varieties  yield  a  large  quantity  of  fruit, 
but  it  is  so  small  and  ripens  so  unevenly  that  it  is 
of  little  use,  except  for  poultry  and  pigs.  It  may 
have  a  value  as  a  preventive  of  injury  to  the  cherry 
and  strawberry  crops,  as  the  robins  and 
cedar  birds  are  very  fond  of  the  fruit 
and  will  take  less  of  the  former  fruits. 
The  varieties 
that  produce  the 
largest  and  best 
fruits,  the  New 
American  (Fig- 
ure 59),  Down- 
ing (Figure  60), 
Hicks,  Towns- 
e n  d,  etc.,  are 
either  grafted  or 
budded  upon  the 

Fig.  59-TheNew  American  Chinese    (MorUS  Fi*  60-The  Down- 

Mulberry  alba  multicaulis)       ing  Mulberry 

or  Russian  stock  (Morus  alba  Tartarica},  the  latter 
being  a  little  more  hardy,  but  none  standing  north  of 
the  forty-third  degree  parallel,  many  being  killed  even 
much  farther  south. 


THE     MULBERRY  113 

For  the  best  success,  the  trees  should  be  planted  in 
a  warm,  rather  poor  soil,  with  full  exposure  to  sunlight 
and  air.  Sometimes  the  trees  are  injured  by  too  rapid 
growth,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  sweet  cherry  trees, 
in  fact,  they  both  succeed  under  about  the  same 
conditions. 

The  Russian  mulberry,  introduced  into  the  Middle 
West  as  a  timber  tree  and  bird  food,  to  save  the  cherry 
crop,  has  proved  of  little  value,  the  fruit  being  too 
small  in  size  and  quantity.  The  weeping  form,  known 
as  Tea's  weeping  mulberry,  is  an  acquisition  to  our  list 
of  beautiful  ornamental  trees.  It  is  not  perfectly  hardy 
north  of  Boston. 


THE  GRAPE 

THE  FOX  GRAPE  ( Vitis  Labrusca) 
SUMMER  GRAPE  ( Vitis  aestivalis) 
FROST  GRAPE  ( Vitis  cordifolia) 
EUROPEAN  GRAPE  (Vitis  vinifera) 

The  grape,  from  its  healthfulness,  the  large  range 
of  the  country  over  which  it  flourishes  and  its  large 
products,  may  be  placed  next  in  importance  to  the  apple. 
The  -area  planted  is  somewhere  between  400,000  and 
500,000  acres,  of  which  about  one-half  is  in  California. 
The  number  of  vines  planted  is  given  in  the  last  census 
reports  as  200,000,000  and  the  yield  of  fruit  as  1,144,- 
278,000  pounds.  The  largest  closely  planted  grape  area 
in  the  world  is  claimed  to  be  that  of  the  "Lake  Shore 
Grape  Belt,"  a  tract  extending  from  Brocton,  N.  Y.,  to 
Sandusky,  0.,  and  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Chautauqua. 
This  fruit  is  of  especial  importance,  because  of  the 
success  attained  in  growing  it  in  the  home  garden  on 
the  south  side  of  fences,  walls  and  buildings. 

ORIGIN    AND    HISTORY 

There  are  about  twenty  species  of  the  grape  in  the 
United  States,  but  all  of  the  varieties  of  any  importance 
in  cultivation  have  come  from  the  four  above  mentioned 
species.  In  1820  only  one  or  two  of  the  varieties  now 
cultivated  were  known  in  any  section  of  this  country, 
and  all  of  the  especially  valuable  kinds  have  been  pro- 
duced within  forty  or  fifty  years.  A  few  fairly  good 


THE    GRAPE  115 

varieties  have  been  produced  by  hybridization,  but  most 
of  those  in  cultivation  are  chance  seedlings,  or  selected 
seedlings  of  such  hardy  varieties  as  the  Concord,  etc. 
The  introduction  of  foreign  blood,  as  it  is  called,  i.  e., 
the'  crossing  of  our  native  species  with  the  European 
grape  (Vitis  vinifera)  has  always  resulted  in  a  weak 
vine,  liable  to  diseases  and  to  injury  from  cold,  yet  in 
flavor  and  keeping  qualities  they  are  superior  to  the 
former,  and  by  continued  effort  it  is  hoped  that  varieties 
may  be  obtained  of  superior  quality  and  hardiness. 
The  greatest  hope,  however,  seems  to  be  in  crosses 
between  these  and  hardy  native  varieties. 

THE     VINEYARD 

The  best  soil  for  the  growth  of  the  vine  is  a  light 
sandy  or  gravelly  one,  on  a  high  elevation  and  exposed 
to  the  south,  where  the  fruit  will  be  of  fine  quality  and 
there  will  be  little  danger  from  late  frosts  in  the  spring 
and  early  frosts  in  the  fall.  The  more  very  small  stones 
in  the  soil  the  warmer  it  will  be  and  the  richer  the 
fruit.  While  this  fruit  may  be  sometimes  ripened  on 
low  land,  competition  is  so  great  and  prices  are  so  low 
that  much  profit  cannot  be  expected,  except  under  the 
best  of  conditions.  We  may  escape  frosts  now  and  then 
on  low  land,  but  the  loss  of  even  a  few  crops  in  a  series 
of  years  would  render  the  business  unprofitable.  Steep 
slopes  should  be  avoided,  on  account  of  the  washing  of 
the  soil  during  heavy  rains,  as  the  cost  of  terracing 
is  so  great  as  to  take  any  possible  profit. 

Vines — The  best  vines  are  strong,  one-year-old 
plants,  from  the  cutting  or  layer,  and  with  a  good 
amount  of  root.  Before  planting  the  top  should  be  cut 
back  to  about  two  buds  and  the  roots  to  one  foot  in 
length.  See  chapter  on  the  propagation  of  the  vine. 

Distance — Before  planting  the  land  should  be  thor- 
oughly fitted  by  plowing  and  harrowing,  and  be  marked 


116         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

out  with  a  plow  or  a  marker.  The  distance  of  planting 
most  practiced  is  eight  by  ten  feet,  though  small  grow- 
ing vines  may  be  planted  six  by  ten  feet.  Close  planting 
has  a  tendency  to  cause  mildew  and  rot,  especially  if 
planted  on  land  not  fully  exposed  to  air  and  sunlight. 

Planting — The  crown  of  the  vine  should  not  be 
planted  deep,  as  the  grape  roots  naturally  run  very  near 
the  surface.  Three  or  four  inches  is  deep  enough  for 
the  crown,  but  the  ends  of  the  roots  should  be  put 
down  into  the  moist  soil,  as  seen  in  Figure  61.  It  is 


Fig.  61— Planting  the  Grapevine 

sometimes  the  practice  to  put  the  roots  on  the  sloping 
side  of  a  furrow,  with  the  crown  four  inches  deep  and 
the  root  spread  out  flat,  at  an  angle  of  about  forty-five 
degrees,  then  covering  with  soil  and  pressing  it  firmly 
about  them.  If  a  double  furrow  is  plowed,  leaving  a 
ridge  between  them,  the  vine  can  be  easily  and  quickly 
planted.  The  best  surface  soil  should  be  used  in  filling 
in  about  the  roots,  and  if  it  is  very  poor  a  little  fine 
ground  bone  should  be  well  mixed  with  the  soil  at 
planting. 

Fertilization — The  grape  does  not  require  a  large 
amount  of  fertilizers.     The  elements  most  needed  are 


Fig.  62- Vineyard  with  Cover  Crop 


Pig.  63— Vineyard  Without  Cover  Crop 


118         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  this  is,  in  part,  the 
;  reason  why  it  succeeds  best  on  gravelly  soil.  Enough 
nitrogen  must  be  applied,  however,  to  make  a  moder- 
ately vigorous  growth  of  wood.  A  very  good  formula 
for  the  grape,  to  be  varied  somewhat  according  to  the 
soil  and  the  condition  of  vines  is:  Fine  ground  bone, 
five  hundred  pounds,  sulphate  of  potash,  three  hundred 
pounds;  or  nitrate  of  soda,  two  hundred  pounds,  sul- 
phate of  potash,  two  hundred  pounds,  acid  phosphate  or 
fine  ground  rock  phosphate,  four  hundred  pounds.  If 
the  vines  make  a  poor  growth  of  wood,  add  more  bone 
or  nitrate  of  soda,  but  if  the  wood  growth  is  large,  use 
only  the  potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  A  cover  crop, 
sown  about  August  10,  of  peas  and  barley,  will  be  found 
very  useful,  especially  on  sloping  land,  to  supply  organic 
matter,  hold  the  soil  from  washing  and  to  protect  the 


Fig.  64— Economical  Use  of  Posts 

grape  roots  from  severe  freezing.  Figure  62  shows 
a  vineyard  with  cover  crop  of  peas  and  barley,  and 
Figure  63  the  same  without  the  cover. 

Cultivation — The  first  two  years  after  planting, 
some  hoed  crop,  like  peas  or  beans,  may  be  planted 
among  the  vines,  but  a  late  growing  crop,  like  the  potato, 
might  do  harm  by  causing  a  late  growth  of  the  vine, 
the  crop  being  dug  in  August  or  September. 

Supports  and  Trellises — The  trellis  most  in  use 
and  which  is  the  most  satisfactory  for  the  commercial 
vineyardist,  is  made  of  posts  and  wire.  Chestnut  or 
cedar  makes  the  most  durable  posts,  though  other  mate- 
rials are  used.  If  the  posts  are  six  inches  in  diameter 
at  the  small  end  and  are  sawed  diagonally,  as  seen  in 
Figure  64,  so  that  they  are  2x6  inches  at  the  opposite 


THE     GRAPE 


119 


ends,  two  good  posts  are  made  of  what  usually  makes 
but  one.  The  posts  are  set  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet 
apart,  according  to  the  weight  of  the  vines,  or  even  a 
greater  distance,  and  small  stakes  are  put  in  between. 
Two  or  three  wires  are  used  for  the  support  of  the  vines, 
according  to  the  method  of  training.  If  the  vines  are 
trained  as  in  Figure  65,  known  as  the  Kniffin  system, 
only  two  wires  are  needed,  but  if  more  than  two 
canes  are  grown,  more  wires  will  be  needed.  Wire 
makes  the  best  support,  as  it  is  the  cheapest,  the 
most  durable,  and  the  vines  will  support  themselves 
more  or  less  by  their  tendrils  without  tying.  No.  14 
and  No.  16  galvanized  wire  are  the  sizes  most  in  use. 
The  wires  are  fas- 
tened to  the  posts 
or  stakes  by  the 
common  wire  fence 
staples,  the  top  wire 
being  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  post. 
The  hight  of  the 
posts  varies  in  dif- 


Fig.  65— The  Kniffin  System  of  Grape 
Training 


ferent  localities  from  five  to  six  feet  and  they  should 
be  planted  from  three  to  three  and  one-half  feet  deep, 
to  be  beyond  the  action  of  frost.  Chestnut  and  cedar 
posts  will  last  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years,  and  should 
be  renewed  before  quite  rotted  off,  that  the  weight  of 
the  vines  does  not  break  them  over  when  loaded  with 
fruit.  The  wires  are  stretched  on  the  trellis  with  the 
common  wire  fence  stretcher.  Many  devices  are 
employed  to  brace  the  end  posts;  the  most  common 
perhaps  is  td  put  in  a  short  post  six  to  eight  feet  from 
the  end  of  trellis  and  brace  to  that.  Another  is  to 
run  the  wire  over  the  end  post  and  sink  a  heavy 
stone  about  three  feet  deep  around  which  the  wire  is 
wound,  a?  shown  in  Figure  66.  This  latter  method 


120 


SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 


is  very  satisfactory  if  care  is  taken  not  to  catch  the  cul- 
tivator teeth  into  it  when  turning  the  ends  of  the  rows. 
On  the  north  side  of  a  vineyard,  where  a  windbreak  is 
needed,  a  tree  like  the  Norway  spruce  or  European  larch 
can  be  planted  at  the  end  of  each  row  and  after  a  few 
years  the  wire  be  fastened  with  a  screw  eye  to  the  trunk 
near  the  ground,  and  thus  a  brace  and  windbreak  and 
shelter  be  provided.  The  trellis  need  not  be  put  up  until 
the  beginning  of  the  second  year's  growth,  where  the 
vines  are  strong,  or  the  third  year  if  they  have  made  a 
small  growth. 


Pie.  66— Method  of  Bracing  the  End  Posts 
TRAINING    AND    PRUNING 

The  First  Year — It  is  the  common  practice  the 
first  year  to  let  the  vines  lie  on  the  ground,  giving 
them  no  care  further  than  to  see  that  they  are  not 
injured  in  cultivating,  but  this  is  not  the  best  way,  as 
the  leaves  that  lie  on  the  ground  are  sure  to  be  attacked 
by  mildew,  while  if  trained  to  a  small  stake  they  would 
be  much  less  subject  to  this  injury. 

The  Second  Year—M  the  end  of  the  first  year, 
unless  the  vines  have  made  four  to  six  feet  of  growth, 
and  before  the  sap  begins  to  run,  the  tops  of  the  vines 


THE     GRAPE 


121 


are  to  be  cut  back  to  two  buds,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
very  vigorous  start  for  the  second  year.  If,  however,  the 
growth  is  more  than  four  feet,  the  vine  is  to  be  cut  at 
the  level  of  the  first  wire  on  the  trellis.  During  the 
second  year  of  the  strong,  or  the  third  year  of  the  weak 
vine,  two  canes  are  allowed  to  grow  from  the  two  top 
buds,  running  along  the  first  wire  of  the  trellis.  All 
laterals  should  be  pinched  off  when  they  have  made 
one  leaf,  but  not  removing  this  leaf,  as  it  would  cause 
the  bud  at  the  base  to  grow,  a  thing  that  is  to  be  avoided 
if  possible.  Then  when  another  leaf  is  formed  on  this 
lateral  it  is  pinched  again,  thus  forcing  all  of  the 
growth  into  one  or  two  canes. 


Fiff.  67— The  Modified  Knlffin  System 

The  Third  Year — At  the  beginning  of  the  third 
year  the  stronger  one  of  the  two  canes  is  carried  to  the 
top  wire  of  the  trellis  for  fruiting,  while  the  weaker  one 
is  cut  back  to  two  buds,  from  one  of  which  is  to  be  grown 
a  new  cane  for  the  next  year's  fruiting.  The  vine  is 
now  fixed  on  the  trellis,  as  shown  in  Figure  67,  and 
each  year  from  this  on  the  training  required  will  be  the 
same,  the  forcing  of  the  summer's  growth  into  the  top 
or  fruiting  cane  and  into  the  one  new  cane  that  is  to 
replace  each  fruiting  cane  after  the  crop  has  been  taken 
from  it.  The  fruiting  laterals  on  the  top  canes  will 
need  pinching  off  as  soon  as  the  last  cluster  of  flower 
buds  can  be  distinguished,  or  owing  to  their  soft  growth 
may  be  broken  off  by  high  winds.  These  laterals  must 
be  kept  headed  in  all  summer  and  will  need  attention 


122  SUCCESSFUL     FBDIT     CULTURE 

several  times  during  the  summer,  as  well  as  all  laterals 
on  the  new  cane  on  the  lower  wire.  A  large  amount  of 
foliage  should  never  be  removed  from  a  vine  at  any 
time;  it  is  much  better  to  stop  growth  when  it  has 
reached  the  proper  length. 

The  winter  pruning  required  after  the  vine  has 
become  established,  i.  e.,  after  the  third  year,  is  simply 
to  cut  away  the  old  fruiting  cane  at  or  near  the  point 
where  the  new  cane  started,  and  cutting  away  all  of  the 
laterals  on  the  new  cane.  This  work  may  be  done  at 
any  time  after  the  leaves  have  fallen  and  until  about  the 
middle  of  March.  After- this  date  the  vines  are  likely 
to  be  injured  by  bleeding.  It  is  not  best  to  prune  when 
the  canes  are  frozen,  as  they  are  then  very  easily  broken. 
The  common  hand-pruning  shears  (Figure  26)  are  used 
for  this  purpose,  of  which  there  are  many  forms,  those 
having  the  flat  spiral  or  wire  spring  being  preferred  by 
the  writer. 

Pruning  Old  Vines — In  many  gardens  are  to  be 
found  old  vines  that  have  not  been  pruned  for  years, 
and  which  produce  fruit  that  is  almost  worthless  in 
consequence.  The  owner  still  neglects  them  because  he 
does  not  know  how  to  take  hold  of  the  vine  and  put 
it  into  shape.  Such  a  vine,  with  a  little  care,  may  be 
made  productive  and  can  be  brought  up  in  a  few  years, 
to  any  system  of  pruning.  The  first  thing  to  do  is 
to  cut  away  all  of  the  old  wood,  leaving  only  the 
required  number  of  new  canes  for  the  system  of  train- 
ing desired.  Any  vine  that  is  vigorous  will  have  enough 
new  canes  to  fill  up  the  trellis  or  side  of  a  building 
and  will  often  produce  as  much  fruit  on  the  few  remain- 
ing canes  after  pruning  as  if  the  vine  were  not  primed 
at  all,  and  that  of  a  much  better  quality.  In  case  the 
vine  is  not  vigorous  and  has  but  few  or  no  new  canes, 
the  whole  top  may  be  cut  off  and  only  the  desired 
number  of  new  canes  be  allowed  to  grow  during  the 


THE    GRAPE  123 

following  summer,  when  after  one  season  a  large  crop 
of  fruit  may  be  expected.  In  both  of  these  cases  all 
laterals  must  be  kept  pinched  off  in  the  same  manner 
as  if  the  vine  were  in  the  vineyard.  A  very  good  way 
to  locate  the  canes  on  an  old  vine  of  this  kind  that 
it  is  desired  to  save  is  to  start  near  the  ground  and 
mark  them  with  blue  or  red  chalk  at  frequent  intervals 
and  then  cut  out  all  not  so  marked. 

Thinning  the  Fruit — The  money  value  of  a  crop 
of  grapes  depends  very  largely  upon  the  size  and  per- 
fection of  the  bunches,  and  this  will  depend  a  good 
deal  upon  the  number  of  bunches  allowed  to  grow  on 
a  vine.  On  a  vine  that  is  vigorous  and  well  supplied 
with  wood,  more  bunches  of  fruit  will  set  than  it  can 
mature  to  the  greatest  perfection,  and  the  number 
should  be  reduced  as  soon  as  the  berries  are  the  size  of 
small  peas.  The  number  of  bunches  that  are  to  be 
allowed  to  grow  will  depend  upon  the  vigor  of  the  vine. 
In  a  well  established  vineyard  the  average  number 
should  be  from  twenty  to  thirty  to  the  vine,  making,  at 
a  distance  of  8x10  feet  and  the  bunches  averaging  one- 
half  pound,  5440  to  7160  pounds  per  acre,  which  is 
perhaps  about  the  average  of  vineyards  under  good 
care.  One,  two  or  three  bunches  are  allowed  to  each 
lateral,  according  to  the  number  and  strength  of  the 
laterals. 

Gathering  the  Fruit — Unlike  other  fruits  the  grape 
does  not  improve  in  quality  after  being  picked  but  soon 
loses  its  lively  fresh  taste,  and  must  be  fully  ripened  on 
the  vine.  In  many  localities  the  fall  frosts  hold  off 
so  that  maturity  is  practically  assured  every  year,  but 
in  others  it  is  often  destroyed  before  fully  ripe.  The 
ripeness  of  the  fruit  is  generally  determined  by  the 
color,  but  it  may  be  more  definitely  shown  by  the  chang- 
ing of  the  stem  of  the  bunch  where  it  joins  the  cane. 
When  this  takes  the  color  of  the  cane  for  one-fourth  to 


124 


SUCCESSFUL     FIIUIT     CULTURE 


one-half  of  an  inch,  it  is  safe  to  pick  and  put  into 
storage.  Light  frosts  will  injure  unripe  fruit,  but 
when  fully  ripened  it  will  not  be  injured  except  by 
a  freeze. 

To  retain  the  beauty  of  the  fruit,  the  bunches 
should  be  removed  from  the  vine  by  taking  hold  of 
the  stem  and  cutting  with  a  knife  or  scissors,  so  as  not 
to  injure  the  bloom.  Where  large  quantities  are  to  be 
picked,  in  some  sections,  they  are  placed  on  trays  four 
feet  long  by  eighteen  inches  wide  with  cleats  on  ends  and 
a  single  layer  deep,  the  trays  to  be  stacked  one  above 
another.  These  trays  are  made  by  nailing  head  pieces 
upon  the  ends  of  a  board  of  the  required  dimen- 
sions. Strips  two  and  one- 
half  inches  wide  and  three- 
eighths  inch  thick  are  nailed 
on  the  edges  of  the  trays  to 
keep  the  fruit  from  falling  off. 
(Figure  68.)  This  gives  cir- 
culation enough  about  the  fruit 

and  large  quantities  can  be  placed  in  a  small  space  until 
they  are  packed  for  shipping. 

Packing  and  Shipping — For  nearby  markets  grapes 
are  packed  in  open  trays,  holding  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  pounds,  the  common  Diamond  market  basket, 
containing  ten  to  twelve  pounds,  or  in  small  chip  or 
veneer  baskets,  holding  from  three  to  six  pounds,  and 
taken  into  the  market  with  the  bloom  uninjured,  but 
for  long  distance  shipping  they  are  almost  invariably 
packed  in  the  three,  five,  eight  or  ten-pound  veneer 
basket  with  a  cover.  Varieties  with  a  tough  skin  pack 
the  best  in  the  last  named  basket,  though  hundreds 
of  tons  of  the  thin-skinned  Concords  and  Wordens  are 
packed  and  shipped  in  this  way.  To  do  this  work 
requires  considerable  skill  and  quick  movements.  In 
sections  where  large  quantities  of  grapes  are  grown,  the 


THE    GRAPE  125 

packing  is  done  by  the  buyer,  or  at  a  central  packing 
house  of  a  grape  union.  In  both  cases  the  results  have 
proved  much  more  satisfactory  than  where  each  grower 
packs  his  own  fruit,  as  the  grade  will  be  much  more 
uniform,  and  as  skilled  help  can  be  employed,  the  work 
is  better  and  more  cheaply  done.  In  shipping,  the  local 
market  should  be  considered  first,  as  better  prices  can 
often  be  obtained  there,  because  the  fruit  can  be  put 
into  the  hands  of  the  consumer  in  better  condition 
than  where  it  has  been  packed  in  a  basket,  and  the 
cost  of  package  and  transportation  may  be  less. 

Grapes  in  Cold  Storage — Unless  one  has  especially 
good  facilities  for  keeping  this  fruit,  it  is  best  not  to 
attempt  to  carry  it  much  beyond  the  holidays,  as  there 
will  be  often  much  waste.  Prices  do  not  generally 
improve  very  much  after  this  time  and  the  quality 
deteriorates  very  rapidly  unless  the  conditions  for  stor- 
ing are  very  favorable.  In  storing  with  ice,  the  moist 
air  from  the  ice  chamber  should  be  cut  off  from  contact 
with  the  fruit,  as  it  causes  the  stems  to  mold.  A  too 
dry  atmosphere  also  must  be  avoided,  which  causes  the 
stems  to  shrivel.  The  most  successful  cold  storage  houses 
for  grapes  are  cooled  by  chemicals,  where  the  tempera- 
ture and  moisture  can  be  more  exactly  regulated  than 
with  ice. 

VARIETIES 

Varieties  are  classified  or  grouped  into  white,  red 
and  black  or  purple.  Of  the  hundreds  of  varieties 
known  but  a  very  few  are  of  much  value  for  commer- 
cial purposes,  and  only  those  of  decided  merit  will  be 
mentioned. 

BLACK   VARIETIES 

Warden — This  is  perhaps  the  best  very  early  grape 
iix  cultivation.  It  resembles  the  Concord  very  closely, 


126          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

though  the  bunch  is  not  quite  so  large;  the  berry  is 
larger  than  the  latter,  of  a  dark  brown  purple  color 
until  fully  ripe,  but  is  in  good  eating  condition  a  week 
or  ten  days  before  the  Concord.  It  has  the  same  thin 
skin  as  the  latter  and  is  more  liable  to  crack  during 
rainstorms,  just  as  it  is  getting  ripe. 

Concord — One  of  the  most  vigorous  and  productive, 
and  perhaps  the  most  largely  planted  of  all.  The 
bunches  are  large,  the  berries  of  good  size,  the  skin  thin 
and  the  pulp  is  tender  and  juicy  but  rather  acid  at  the 
center.  In  Northern  localities  it  is  often  cut  off  by  the 
early  frosts  in  the  fall. 

Campbell's  Early — A  comparatively  new  grape  that 
begins  to  color  earlier  than  Moore's  Early,  but  like  the 
latter  the  pulp  does  not  become  soft  and  sweet  until 
after  the  Worden  is  in  good  eating  condition.  It  how- 
ever hangs  a  long  time  on  the  vine  and  finally  becomes 
very  rich,  sweet  and  tender. 

Wilder — A  hybrid  grape  of  large  size  and  good 
quality.  It  ripens  with  the  Concord,  has  a  thick  skin 
and  a  soft,  sweet  pulp  that  is  very  satisfactory.  The 
vine  is  very  vigorous  but  subject  to  mildew  and  anthrac- 
nose,  and  the  berries  to  anthracnose  and  black  rot.  With 
favorable  conditions  and  good  care  it  is  desirable.  The 
fruit  keeps  much  longer  than  the  others  mentioned. 

EED    GRAPES 

Delaware — This  little  grape  is  everywhere  known. 
It  is  hardy  and  productive  but  of  slow  growth  and  the 
thin  leaves  are  liable  to  injury  from  mildew.  It  is  one 
of  the  best  in  quality  and  by  proper  spraying  the  leaves 
can  be  prevented  from  mildewing  and  the  variety  made 
profitable. 

Brighton — In  size  of  bunch,  vigor  and  productive- 
ness, and  in  quality  of  fruit,  under  favorable  conditions, 


THE     GllAPE  127 

no  variety  is  superior  to  this,  but  the  vine  is  tender 
and  often  injured  by  diseases  so  that  it  has  been  dis- 
carded, by  many  growers,  as  a  commercial  variety.  It 
must  be  planted  near  other  varieties  to  have  it  pollenize, 
as  it  is  not  self-fertile  and  fails  to  set  full  bunches  when 
planted  alone. 

WHITE     VARIETIES 

Green  Mountain  (Winchell) — The  earliest  good 
white  grape  that  produces  a  bunch  of  large  size  and 
fine  quality.  The  vine  is  vigorous,  hardy  and  produc- 
tive, but  the  fruit  is  not  of  very  attractive  color,  and 
has  not  been  largely  grown  for  market. 

Moore's  Diamond — This  variety  produces  very 
large  clusters  of  beautiful  fruit  of  good  quality.  The 
vine  is  hardy  and  generally  free  from  disease.  It  ripens 
a  little  later  than  the  Concord  and  for  Northern  locali- 
ties is  therefore  not  profitable. 

Niagara — The  bunches,  and  the  berries  as  well,  are 
a  little  larger  than  those  of  the  last  named  variety,  but 
the  color  is  not  quite  as  good  and  it  is  a  little  later  in 
ripening.  The  vine  is  very  vigorous  and  productive, 
but  is  very  much  subject  to  disease,  especially  in  the 
North. 

Of  the  varieties  of  grapes  of  different  colors,  those 
of  a  purple  color  sell  the  best,  a  very  bright  red,  like 
the  Delaware,  the  next,  and  the  white  or  green,  unless 
of  a  golden  color,  the  poorest. 

GIRDLING     THE     VINE 

In  Northern  sections  and  with  very  late  varieties 
the  crop  is  often  cut  off  by  early  frosts  in  the  fall,  and 
girdling  (taking  out  a  narrow  ring  of  bark  below  the 
fruit)  is  practiced  to  some  extent  to  hasten  the  ripening. 
The  effect  of  this  girdling  is  to  stop  the  backward 


128 


SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 


flow  of  the  elaborated  sap  to  the  parts  of  the  vine  back 
of  the  girdle,  and  as  a  result  the  foliage  beyond  the 
girdle  is  much  increased  in  vigor  and  the  fruit  in  size, 
and  it  matures  a  week  or  ten  days  earlier  than  the  un- 
girdled  cane.  The  fruit  thus  grown  has  a  more  watery 
consistency,  does  not  taste  as  sweet,  but  many  analyses 
of  girdled  fruit  show  it  to  contain  several  per  cents  more 
sugar.  The  lack  of  sweet  taste  is  due  to  the  acid  being 
more  quickly  soluble  than  the  sugar.  Only  the  part  of 


Fijr.  69— Implements  for  Ringing  Grapevines 

the  vine  that  is  bearing  the  fruit  should  be  treated, 
i.  e.,  that  bearing  the  fruit,  for  if  the  whole  vine  is 
girdled,  there  being  no  elaborated  sap  to  go  below  the 
cut,  no  new  roots  will  be  formed,  and  the  vine  will 
consequently  make  a  very  weak  growth  the  next  season 
if  it  is  not  killed  outright.  To  obtain  the  best  results, 
several  strong  and  vigorous  canes  should  be  grown  below 
the  girdle,  when  no  injury  will  result  from  this  practice. 
By  this  operation  the  growers  in  Northern. sections  can 


THE     GEAPE  129 

get  their  fruit  into  the  local  markets  before  the  main 
supply  from  the  large  grape  growing  sections  gluts  them 
and  the  prices  are  too  low  for  profit.  The  work  o£ 
girdling  is  done  with  a  common  pocket  knife,  or  some 
implement  made  for  this  purpose,  as  shown  in  Figure  69. 
The  best  time  for  this  work  is  when  the  berries 
are  about  one-third  to  one-half  grown.  The  width  of  the 
ring  varies  from  one-quarter  to  one  inch,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  canes,  the  smaller  the  cane  the  narrower 
the  ring.  In  girdling,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
make  the  cut  on  the  bend  of  the  vine,  as  in  that  case 
it  is  very  liable  to  be  broken  by  the  weight  of  the  fruit 
or  by  high  winds. 


XI 


THE  BLACKBERRY 

THE    HIGH    BLACKBERRY     (RubllS    VilloSUS) 

THE  DEWBERRY    (Rubus  Canadensis) 

This  is  one  of  the  very  important  native  fruits, 
and  is  found  growing  wild  in  almost  every  section  of 
the  country;  perhaps  the  most  noted  section  for  the 
growth  of  this  fruit  is  New  Jersey,  from  which  large 
quantities  of  fruit  are  shipped  to  many  Northern  and 
Western  cities.  This  fruit  is  noted  for  its  medicinal 
properties  and  is  a  very  valuable  addition  to  the  list 
of  late  summer  fruits.  In  the  garden  the  blackberry 
is  commonly  planted  in  some  out-of-the-way  place  where 
it  is  allowed  to  spread  unmolested,  until  it  becomes  an 
impenetrable  tangle,  where  neither  man  nor  animals 
can  get  the  fruit.  It  is  then  voted  a  nuisance,  when 
with  a  little  care  at  the  proper  time  it  would  have 
yielded  an  abundance  of  fruit.  It  should  be  more 
largely  grown  than  it  is  now,  both  in  the  field  and 
garden. 

THE     COMMON     HIGH     BLACKBERRY 

The  Soil — While  the  blackberry  will  grow  in  a 
great  variety  of  soils,  it  succeeds  best  in  a  rather  heavy 
moist  one.  If  planted  on  a  thin  soil  a  very  large 
amount  of  manure  or  fertilizer  must  be  used  in  order 
to  produce  a  large  growth  of  tops  that  will  shade  the 
ground  and  thus  keep  it  cool.  A  plantation  in  thin 
soil  will  not  last  as  long  as  one  in  heavy  land.  On  a 


THE     BLACKBERRY  131 

thin  soil,  if  water  is  available  for  irrigation,  large  crops 
may  often  be  produced,  or  this  result,  a  soil-cover,  may 
sometimes  be  obtained  by  heavy  mulching.  The  danger 
from  mulching  is  that  the  roots  are  brought  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground  and  the  mulch  must  be  kept  up 
all  of  the  time,  or  when  it  decays,  or  if  it  is  removed 
and  the  land  cultivated,  the  surface  roots  will  be  de- 
stroyed. 

Planting — The  best  time  for  planting  is  in  the 
fall,  but  the  plants  may  be  set  with  success  in  the  spring 
if  it  is  done  early.  If  it  is  necessary  to  delay  planting 
until  late  in  the  spring,  a  plantation  may  be  made  by 
taking  up  the  new  soft .  suckers,  putting  them  into  a 
pail  of  water  as  they  are  dug  and  setting  them  without 
exposure  to  the  sun  and  air.  The  soft  ends  of  the  canes 
should  be  cut  off  before  they  are  dug.  This  method 
may  be  practiced  at  any  time  during  the  summer  when- 
ever young  shoots  can  be  obtained,  and  is  a  very,  con- 
venient way  to  fill  out  a  newly  planted  field.  The 
distance  of  planting  varies  greatly  with  different 
growers,  ranging  from  4x6  to  6x8  feet.  Two  methods 
are  practiced,  the  Hill  system  and  the  Row  system. 
The  advantages  of  the  former  are  that  most  of  the  work 
of  cultivation  can  be  done  by  the  horse,  and  the  fruit 
may  be  more  easily  gathered  than  in  the  close  row. 
With  the  row  system  the  soil  is  more  covered,  and  more 
shaded,  a  thing  that  must  be  provided  to  get  the  best 
results,  especially  in  dry  weather,  and  the  fruit  will  be 
larger,  as  the  largest  and  best  fruit  is  always  found 
under  the  shade  of  masses  of  foliage. 

Cultivation — There  are  few  crops  that  may  be  so 
easily  grown,  if  the  work  be  done  at  the  proper  time, 
as  the  blackberry,  and  few  also  that  if  neglected  require 
so  much  care  to  put  into  condition  again.  All  sucker* 
not  needed  to  fill  out  the  rows  or  hills  must  be  treated 
as  weeds  ami  the  ground  be  kept  light  and  loose  at  all 


132 


SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 


times  during  the  summer,  especially  during  dry  weather 
when  the  fruit  is  ripening.  By  frequent  cultivation  the 
roots  are  kept  deep  in  the  soil,  which  produces  the  cool 
condition  under  which  they  succeed  the  best,  and  plant 
food  is  being  rapidly  developed  by  the  frequent  exposure 
of  the  soil  to  the  air.  Late  cultivation  is  generally 
to  be  avoided,  but  in  seasons  when  there  is  but  little 
moisture  in  the  soil  during  August,  it  may  be  best 


V  x   • 


Fig.  70-Blackberry  Cane.  Pruned  and  Unpruned 

to  keep  up  cultivation  till  the  middle  or  the  last  of 
September,  or  until  there  has  been  a  considerable 
fall  of  rain. 

Pruning — Success  in  the  growth  of  this  crop  will 
largely  depend  upon  pruning.  The  first  year,  at  plant- 
ing, the  canes  are  cut  back  to  within  five  or  six  inches 
of  the  ground,  and  from  each  of  these  canes  will  grow, 


THE     BLACKBERRY  133 

the  first  summer,  one  or  two  canes,  and  perhaps  one  or 
two  sprouts  from  the  roots.  These  may  be  expected  to 
bear  a  few  berries  the  next  season,  but  the  fruit,  being 
so  near  the  ground,  will  not  be  worth  the  trouble  of 
protecting  from  the  spatter  of  dirt  during  heavy  rains. 
The  second  summer  more  numerous  new  shoots,  from 
three  to  six  feet  long,  should  be  produced,  that  may  be 
expected  to  bear  a  crop  of  considerable  value  the  third 
season.  After  the  canes  begin  to  bear,  the  work  of 
pruning  consists  in  cutting  out  the  old  canes  that  have 
borne  a  crop,  thinning  out  the  small,  weak  shoots,  and 
heading  back  the  new  ones  so  that,  as  seen  in  Figure  70, 
when  they  are  loaded  with  leaves  and  fruit  they  will 
not  be  bent  down  to  the  ground. 

The  old  fruiting  canes  are  cut  away  by  some  growers 
in  the  late  summer  or  early  fall,  but  are  left  by  most  of 
them  until  the  leisure  days  of  winter.  Some  growers 
summer  prune  by  heading  back  the  new  canes  when  they 
have  made  about  three  feet  of  growth,  which  causes  a 
stocky  and  branching  condition,  as  seen  in  Figure  70. 
while  others  let  the  canes  grow  to  their  full  length  and 
do  not  head  back  until  after  growth  ceases  in  the  fall, 
or  until  the  winter  or  spring  pruning.  After  many 
trials  of  the  different  methods  and  under  many  varying 
conditions  and  soils,  we  conclude  that  the  single  un- 
branched  cane  with  numerous  strong  buds  along  it  will 
give  more  fruit  than  the  summer  pruned  canes  with 
buds  that  mature  later  on  the  branched  growth  resulting 
from  this  summer  pruning.  Another  objection  to  the 
branching  canes  is  that  with  a  heavy  fall  of  wet  snow 
or  heavy  accumulation  of  ice,  the  laterals  are  liable  to 
be  broken  from  the  main  canes.  Pruning  is  often 
delayed  by  many  until  after  the  buds  have  begun  to 
grow  in  the  spring,  that  it  may  be  definitely  known 
what  canes  are  winterkilled  and  what  are  not,  otherwise 
many  canes  that  perhaps  were  alive  would  be  cut  out, 


134 


SUCCESSFUL  FKUIT  CULTURE 


while  many  dead  ones  would  be  left,  if  the  pruning  were 
done  before  growth  began. 

Training — While  many  growers  do  not  give  their 
blackberry  plants  any  support,  it  is  often  much  better 
to  have  some  way  of  holding  them  up  from  the  ground 
in  cases  of  heavy  foliage  and  crops  of  fruit  during  wet 
weather.  A  very  good  and  inexpensive  support  consists 
in  stretching  No.  14  or  16  galvanized  wire  on  each 
side  of  the  row  and  holding  it  in  place  on  a  crosspiece 
from  one  to  two  feet,  according  to  the  width  of  the 
row  of  canes,  nailed  to  stakes  set  at  intervals  of  from 
fifteen  to  thirty  feet  apart,  as 
shown  in  Figure  71.  At  the 
end  of  each  crosspiece  is 
driven  a  strong  nail  to  catch 
the  wires.  In  putting  up  the 
trellis  one  wire  is  drawn  on 
the  ground  close  up  to  the 
row  on  each  side  and  fas- 
tened to  one  end  stake.  It 
is  then  drawn  as  firmly  as  it 
can  be  done  without  breaking, 
and  then  fastened  tempora- 
rily at  the  other  end,  'and 
caught  over  the  nail  on  each 
stake,  as  seen  in  Figure  72.  The  wires  are  then  drawn 
together  in  as  many  places  between  each  stake  as  may 
be  found  necessary  to  bring  the  canes  into  an  upright 
position,  after  which  they  may  then  be  drawn  more 
tightly  and  only  a  few  canes  will  be  found  that  will 
need  tying.  This  support  has  the  advantage  that  the 
wires  can  be  quickly  taken  off  the  crosspiece,  drawn 
along  the  middle  of  the  row  during  the  summer,  again 
caught  on  the  nail,  thus  all  new  canes  brought  into  the 
row,  so  that  cultivation  may  be  carried  on  more  com- 
fortably and  the  fruit  be  more  readily  gathered.  Only 


Pig.  71 -Crosspiece  in  Black- 
berry  Trellis 


THE     BLACKBEUUY 


135 


a  limited  number  of  canes  should  be  allowed  to  grow 
in  the  row  or  hill,  and  yet  there  should  be  enough  to 
cover  the  ground  well  during  the  months  of  July  and 
August.  The  larger  the  canes  the  fewer  there  need  be. 
They  should  stand  from  six  inches  to  one  foot  apart, 
and  all  small  canes  be  treated  as  weeds. 

Winter  Protection — There  is  no  variety  of  black- 
berries that  we  find  hardy  under  all  conditions,  and  in 
order  to  insure  a  crop  every  year,  some  means  of 
protection  must  be  provided.  This  is  not  generally 


Fig.  72—  Support  for  Blackberries  and  Raspberries 

practiced,  however,  except  in  the  extreme  North,  and 
in  many  cases  the  cost  will  be  more  than  the  gain. 
The  method  of  protection  most  in  use  is  covering  with 
soil,  as  described  under  the  raspberry. 


VARIETIES 

The  number  of  varieties  that  are  widely  grown 
are  but  few,  and  these  do  not  succeed  over  a  very 
wide  range,  therefore  the  reader  should  consult  his 
own  experiment  station  or  some  successful  grower  in 
his  own  vicinity  as  to  what  to  plant,  and  plant  only 
those  that  are  generally  profitable. 


136  SUCCESSFUL     FKUIT     CULTURE 

Agawam — The  earliest  hardy  variety  for  the  North. 
Fruit  of  large  size,  fine  quality  and  sweet  as  soon  as 
black.  It  is  rather  soft,  but  firm  enough  to  carry  to 
a  near  market  and  keep  for  two  or  three  days.  Its  large 
size,  good  color  and  earliness  make  it  profitable.  Suc- 
ceeds best  on  heavy  soil.  In  some  places  it  has  been 
attacked  by  the  fall  orange  rust,  but  this  is  not  a 
serious  defect  on  strong  land. 

Snyder — A  very  hardy  and  upright  growing  variety 
that  is  largety  grown  at  the  North.  In  heavy  soil  the 
fruit  is  of  large  size  and  good  color,  but  on  light  soil 
and  where  the  bushes  are  not  growing  vigorously  it  is 
small  and  ripens  unevenly  in  color,  so  that  the  berries 
have  a  mottled  appearance.  It  also  turns  red  after 
being  put  on  the  market,  yet  it  is  more  largely  grown 
in  many  localities  than  any  other. 

Taylor — The  canes  of  this  variety  are  much  lighter 
in  color  than  the  two  last,  very  upright  and  spiny  in 
growth.  The  berries  are  long,  black  and  of  good  qual- 
ity, ripening  about  one  'week  later  than  the  Snyder. 

Eldorado — This  comparatively  new  variety  is  of  the 
Snyder  type,  equally  hardy,  and  as  far  as  tested  seems 
to  be  productive.  The  fruit  is  without  the  color  defects 
of  the  latter. 

Of  varieties  that  are  valuable  in  some  localities  may 
be  mentioned  the  Ancient  Briton,  Erie,  Ohmer,  Early 
Harvest,  Bangor,  Mersereau,  etc. 

Picking  and  Marketing — If  the  fruit  is  to  be 
shipped  a  long  distance  it  should  be  picked  every  day, 
that  a" I  of  the  berries  shall  be  firm.  It  should  not  be 
picked  while  wet  if  it  can  be  avoided,  and  should  be 
put  into  a  cool  place  as  soon  as  possible  after  picking. 
It  is  marketed  in  quart  baskets,  put  into  crates  holding 
thirty-two  quarts.  The  prices  at  which  the  fruit  sells 
vary  in  the  local  market  from  five  cents  to  twenty  cents, 
and  where  stepped  a  long  distance,  from  three  cents 


THE     BLACKBERRY 


137 


to  fifteen  cents,  according  to  season  and  condition  of 
fruit.  The  yield  will  vary  from  1000  to  5000  quarts 
per  acre. 

THE  DEWBERRY   (Rubus  Canadensis) 

This  species  of 
blackberry  is  found 
growing  wild  from 
N  e  w  f  oundland  to 
Virginia  and  west 
to  the  Kocky  moun- 
tains, and  possesses 
many  desirable 
qualities,  but  its 
habit  of  running  on 
the  ground  and  its 
liability  to  winter- 
kill in  cultivated 
land  have  prevented 
its  cultivation  as  a 
commercial  crop. 
By  giving  proper 
treatment,  however, 
it  has  been  found 
to  produce  paying 
crops  in  some  cases. 
If  the  canes  are 
covered  during  the 
winter  with  a  little 
coarse  hay  or  straw 
and  this  material  is 
then  put  under 
them  in  the  summer,  conditions  are  produced  that 
will  result  in  a  large  crop  of  fruit,  and  as  it  ripens 
one  or  two  weeks  earlier  than  the  high  blackberry  it 
brings  a  good  price.  Some  growers  of  this  fruit 


Fig.  73-Lucretia  Uewben 


138          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

have,  in  addition  to  the  above  treatment,  trained 
the  canes  to  stakes,  by  which  means  the  fruit  can  be 
more  easily  gathered,  but  if  fully  exposed  to  the  sunlight 
and  air  the  berries  are  not  as  large  as  when  shaded.  For 
the  best  results,  the  land  must  be  made  very  rich,  so 
as  to  produce  plants  enough  to  shade  the  ground,  and 
an  abundance  of  moisture  be  present  at  the  time  of 
ripening. 

Varieties — There  are  several  varieties  listed  by 
nurserymen,  but  the  only  one  that  has  been  grown  to 
any  extent  is  the  Lucretia.  (Figure  73.)  This  is  a 
vigorous  grower,  as  hardy  as  any,  and  the  fruit  is  of 
large  size  and  excellent  quality. 

See  methods  of  propagation  in  Chapter  XVIII, 
and  insects  and  fungous  pests  in  Chapters  XX  and 
XXL 


XII 
THE  RASPBERRY 

THE     RED     RASPBERRY      (RubuS     StrigOSUS) 

The  red  raspberry  is  the  most  popular  of  the  bush 
fruits  in  most  localities.  It  is  found  in  a  wild  state 
from  Labrador  to  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina  and 
west  to  Missouri  and  Minnesota.  Like  the  blackberry, 
it  delights  in  a  cool,  moist  location,  but  is  found  growing 
in  almost  every  kind  of  soil.  It  is  propagated  in  the 
same  way  as  the  blackberry  and  the  general  treatment 
in  the  field  is  the  same.  The  varieties  that  are  most 
cultivated  are  not  quite  as  hardy  as  those  of  the  black- 
berry, but,  as  the  canes  can  be  more  easily  protected 
from  cold  by  covering,  the  crop  is  quite  as  certain  to 
be  profitable.  As  with  the  blackberry,  large  fruit 
cannot  be  expected  unless  the  land  is  rich  enough  to 
produce  a  large  growth  of  canes  to  shade  the  soil  and 
keep  it  cool. 

The  distance  for  planting  varies  much  with  dif- 
ferent growers  and  different  methods.  In  a  very  rich 
soil  the  canes  may  grow  so  large  and  tall  that  if  planted 
in  rows  six  feet  apart  or  in  hills  4x6  feet,  the  ground 
will  be  well  shaded,  as  seen  in  Figure  74,  while  in  thin 
or  poor  soil  the  cover  would  not  be  obtained  if  set  3x5 
feet.  The  trellis  used  for  the  support  of  the  blackberry 
(Figure  72)  is  sometimes  used;  the  canes  are  some- 
times tied  to  stakes,  though  no  support  is  used  by 
most  growers. 

Pruning  and  Training — The  methods  of  pruning 
and  training  outlined  for  the  blackberry  apply  to  this 


THE     RASPBERRY  141 

fruit  in  almost  every  particular ;  it  is  better,  however,  to 
cut  out  the  fruiting  canes  soon  after  the  fruit  has  been 
gathered.  Summer  pruning  is  not  as  generally  prac- 
ticed as  upon  the  blackberry,  but  some  growers  obtain 
good  success  by  this  practice. 

Winter  Protection — The  canes  being  small  and 
flexible,  they  can  be  laid  over  to  the  ground  and  covered 
with  soil  and  thus  injury  from  cold  be  prevented.  The 
work  of  laying  down  the  canes  is  very  simple,  three 
men  being  employed  to  the  best  advantage.  One  man 
with  thick  gloves  on  grasps  a  cluster  of  the  canes  grow- 
ing together  and  with  a  strong  pull  bends  them  to  the 
ground,  as  seen  in  Figure  75 ;  the  second  and  third  man 
then  throw  on  soil  enough  to  hold  the  canes  down. 
Another  cluster  of 
canes  is  grasped 
and  the  process  is 
repeated.  The 
canes  should  be 
bent  toward  the 

south,  SO  that  the    Fig.  75-Laying  Down  Red  Ra 
sun  may  not  strike 

them  perpendicularly,  which  would  cause  them  to 
start  too  early  in  the  spring  and  injure  them.  After 
all  are  laid  down  the  plow  is  run  lightly  on  each 
side  of  the  row,  turning  more  soil  over  or  against 
the  canes.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  canes  be 
entirely  covered,  as  the  moisture  and  warmth  of  the 
soil  without  covering  is  sufficient  to  keep  them  from 
injury.  In  the  spring  the  canes  should  be  taken  up 
before  growth  begins,  as  the  buds  will  start  more 
quickly  when  near  the  ground  than  when  standing  up- 
right. Deep  working  of  the  soil  among  both  raspberries 
and  blackberries  should  be  avoided,  as  both  are  shallow 
rooted  plants  and  when  worked  deep  the  roots  are  some- 
times seriously  injured  and  the  growth  of  the  plants  is 


142          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

checked.  As  with  the  blackberry,  there  are  but  a  very 
few  varieties  that  are  of  much  value  at  the  North,  while 
at  the  South  many  of  the  so-called  hardy  varieties  lose 
the  foliage  by  burning  during  the  summer. 

VARIETIES 

Cuthbert — While  this  variety  is  often  winterkilled, 
where  it  does  withstand  the  weather  it  yields  a  very  large 
crop  of  large  berries  of  good  quality,  and  is  very  profit- 
able. The  berries  are  large,  of  a  slightly  conical  form, 
and  rather  firm,  so  that  it  carries  fairly  well  to  market. 
In  color  it  is  not  the  best,  but  it  sells  well.  It  succeeds 
best  in  a  rather  moist  soil. 

King — A  very  early  variety  of  bright  red  color  and 
fine  quality.  In  size  it  is  not  as  large  as  the  Cuthbert, 
but  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  very  early  kinds,  and 
one  of  the  most  productive.  It  is  rather  more  hardy 
than  the  Cuthbert. 

London — A  very  stocky,  hardy  growing  plant  that 
in  good  soil  produces  large  fruit  of  good  quality.  It 
requires  a  rather  heavier  and  richer  soil  than  other 
varieties.  In  a  few  cases  it  has  been  reported  as  being 
attacked  by  mildew  when  the  fruit  is  about  ripening 
in  wet  weather.  This  perhaps  would  be  prevented  by 
thorough  spraying  just  as  the  blossom  begins  to  open 
in  the  spring. 

Other  varieties  that  are  of  value  in  many  localities 
are  Miller,  Phoenix,  Thompson's  Pride  and  Early  Pro- 
lific. 

MARKETING 

The  fruit  is  very  soft  and  breaks  down  quickly 
in  the  market  in  hot  weather.  It  should  be  marketed  in 
pint  boxes,  and  be  picked  every  day.  It  should  never 
be  picked  when  wet  if  it  can  be  avoided.  As  soon  as 
gathered  the  fruit  should  be  put  into  a  cool,  dry  place, 


THE     RASPBERRY 


143 


and  then  shipped  to  market  at  the  earliest  possible 
moment.  The  prices  obtained  range  from  five  to  twenty 
cents  per  pint,  according  to  quality  and  condition. 

THE    BLACKCAP    RASPBERRY    (RuJ)US    OCCldentolis) 

The  blackcap  raspberry,  in  its  wild  state  known 
often  as  the  thimbleberry,  differs  in  the  habit  of 
growth,  color  of 
fruit  and  method 
of  propagation  very 
widely  from  the  red 
raspberry.  It  grows 
in  hills  and  throws 
up  no  suckers  from 
the  lateral  roots, 
but  sends  up  strong 
shoots  from  the 
center  of  the  plant 
each  year,  and  is 
propagated  by  the 
ends  of  these  canes 
rooting,  under  fa- 
vorable conditions, 
during  the  late 
summer  and  fall. 
Figure  76  shows 
the  rooting  of 
blackcap  plants. 
The  fruit  is  black  in  color,  less  acid  than  the  red 
varieties,  but  with  larger  and  perhaps  more  numerous 
seeds.  It  was  very  popular  some  ten  to  fifteen  years 
ago,  but  now  in  many  markets  there  is  little  demand 
for  it.  It  yields  much  larger  crops  than  the  red  varie- 
ties, and  comes  to  the  market  following  the  strawberry 
and  just  before  the  red  raspberry. 


Fig.  76-Rooted  Tips  of  Blackcap  Canes 


144         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

Distance  of  Planting — They  are  planted  from  4x5 
to  5x6  feet,  according  to  the  vigor  of  the  variety,  and 
cultivation  is  generally  done  with  the  horse  both  ways. 
Blackcap  plants  should  be  planted  only  in  the  spring, 
as  the  roots  are  very  soft  and  tender  in  the  fall,  and 
the  slight  pressure  of  the  foot  will  bruise  them,  while 
in  the  spring  they  have  become  somewhat  hardened. 
The  end  bud  of  the  "tip"  or  plant  should  not  be  planted 
more  than  an  inch  or  two  below  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
but  the  roots  must  be  put  down  into  the  moist  soil. 
Figure  61,  illustrating  the  planting  of  the  grapevine, 
shows  a  good  way  of  planting  the  blackcap  raspberry. 
Most  failures  in  planting  the  blackcap  raspberry  come 
from  putting  the  end  bud  so  deep  that  it  cannot  break 
through  the  cover  soil. 

Pruning — The  pruning  required  by  the  blackcap  is 
about  the  same  as  for  the  blackberry,  though  it  will  stand 
more  summer  pruning  and  perhaps  requires  two  or  three 
"pinchings-in"  to  make  the  canes  stand  up  without  sup- 
port. Some  growers  tie  to  stakes,  while  others  use 
the  trellis  and  do  not  attempt  to  cultivate  both  ways. 
The  fruiting  cane  should  be  cut  out  as  soon  as  the  fruit 
has  been  gathered  in  order  to  allow  full  growth  of  the 
new  canes. 

Harvesting  and  Marketing — The  fruit  is  picked  in 
quart  baskets  and  sent  to  market  in  twenty-four  or 
thirty-two-quart  crates.  It  carries  well,  but  the  prices 
are  very  low,  ranging  from  five  to  ten  cents  per  quart, 
yet  the  yield  is  generally  large  and  the  fruit  ripens 
nearly  all  at  one  time,  so  that  the  cost  of  growing  and 
picking  is  small  and  much  profit  may  be  expected  where 
there  is  a  demand  for  this  fruit. 

VARIETIES 

Scarcely  a  variety  is  now  grown  that  was  in  cul- 
tivation ten  years  ago,  on  account  of  disease  and 


THE     RASPBERRY  145 

deterioration  of  varieties,  and  it  is  advisable  not  to 
depend  upon  the  old  sorts  too  long  but  renew  the 
plantations  after  four  or  five  years  with  new  kinds. 
Among  the  best  at  this  time  may  be  mentioned  the 

Palmer  —  This  is  an  early  variety  of  large  size  and 
good  quality,  of  dark  color  and  productive.  One  of  the 
best  for  general  cultivation. 

Kansas  —  Perhaps  more  productive  than  the  last,  a 
little  later  in  ripening,  but  especially  valuable  on  account 
of  its  quality  and  hardiness. 

Cumberland  —  One  of  the  most  vigorous  and  pro- 
ductive of  the  blackcaps.  It  is  late  and  of  good  quality. 
It  is  recommended  very  highly  wherever  grown. 

Other  varieties  that  are  grown  in  some  localities 
are  Souhegan,  Gregg,  Ohio,  etc.,  etc. 


THE    PUEPLECAP    RASPBERRY     (RubuS 

This  group  of  raspberries  has  of  late  attracted 
much  attention  on  account  of  their  great  vigor,  pro- 
ductiveness and  fine  quality.  In  habit  of  growth  they 
are  like  the  blackcap,  but  with  a  fruit  about  half  way 
between  this  and  the  red  raspberry,  and  the  flavor 
and  texture  of  the  latter.  They  are  not  as  hardy  as 
the  other  two  species,  yet  the  canes  seldom  kill  down 
so  close  to  the  ground  but  that  laterals  bear  more  or 
less  of  a  crop  of  fruit  every  year.  The  color  of  the 
fruit,  a  reddish-purple,  is  such  that  it  does  not  sell 
readily,  but  it  is  especially  valuable  for  home  use.  It 
is  propagated  in  the  same  way  as  the  blackcap,  and 
should  be  treated  in  the  same  way  as  this  species  as  to 
pruning  and  other  particulars.  Among  the  leading 
varieties  are  : 

Shaffer  —  One  of  the  oldest  of  this  group,  and  one 
of  the  best  in  quality,  but  is  not  quite  as  hardy  as  some 
of  the  later  kinds.  The  fruit  is  large  in  size  but  is  too 
soft  for  distant  market. 


146          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

Columbian — A  more  vigorous  plant  than  the  last, 
and  very  productive,  but  the  fruit  is  not  of  as  good 
quality. 

Numerous  other  varieties  of  this  type  have  been 
introduced,  but  all  of  them  are  of  the  same  dark  red 
color  that  is  not  attractive  in  the  market,  and  none  of 
them  should  be  planted  largely  for  market  unless  there 
is  a  certainty  of  a  demand  for  them. 

YELLOW     RASPBERRIES 

Yellow  varieties,  or  albinos,  of  the  blackcap  and  the 
red  raspberry,  are  listed  in  most  nursery  catalogs,  but 
they  are  of  little  value  in  the  market,  as  they  are  not 
attractive,  and  are  not  of  as  good  quality  as  the  red  or 
black  varieties.  The  best  among  the  yellow  raspberries 
is  the  Golden  Queen  or  Yellow  Cuthbert,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  white  or  albino  form  of  the  latter.  When 
first  picked  it  looks  well,  but  it  soon  turns  to  a  brown 
color.  The  yellowcap  raspberry  and  the  white  black- 
berry are  of  no  commercial  value  and  are  to  be  planted 
only  as  curiosities. 


XIII 

THE  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY 

THE    CURRANT 

(Ribes  rubrum) 

This  is  one  of  the  most  healthful  fruits,  is  easily 
grown,  and  should  be  found  in  every  garden.  It  is 
grown  to  a  considerable  extent  for  market,  and  where 
the  soil  is  suited  to  its  growth  it  is  found  profitable. 
It  succeeds  best  in  a  deep,  moist  loam,  but  if  too  wet 
the  plants  are  heaved  out  in  the  fall  and  spring  by 
frost.  To  prevent  this  heaving  out  the  land  may  be 
heavily  mulched  in  the  fall  with  coarse  stable  manure 
or  straw,  but  this  must  be  removed  in  the  spring  before 
the  roots  have  made  much  growth,  or  it  will  cause 
the  roots  to  grow  so  near  the  surface  as  to  be  injured 
by  the  cultivator,  and  the  second  winter  the  bushes  will 
be  likely  to  be  tipped  over  by  high  winds.  Shallow  level 
cultivation  will  give  the  best  results.  The  land  must 
be  kept  rich  with  a  heavy  dressing  of  stable  manure 
or  fertilizer  each  year,  using  enough  to  produce  a  few 
strong  new  canes  each  season,  for  there  is  no  fruit 
that  runs  small  so  quickly  on  old  wood  as  the  currant. 

Planting — The  distance  most  generally  planted  is 
4x6  feet,  and  they  may  be  planted  either  in  the  fall  or 
the  spring,  as  is  most  convenient.  Some  grower?  set 
the  plants  nearer  than  four  feet  in  the  row,  and  prune 
the  bushes  to  three  or  four  strong  canes.  The  best 
plants  are  strong  one-year  cuttings,  though  many 


148         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

growers  prefer  two-year-old  plants.  The  currant  comes 
into  bearing  the  second  or  third  year  from  planting, 
and  with  proper  care  should  last  for  a  generation 
at  least. 

Pruning — The  pruning  required  consists  in  remov- 
ing the  old  wood  after  it  is  three  or  four  years  old  and 
allowing  only  a  limited  number  of  new  canes  to  grow. 
These  canes  should  be  strong  and  upright,  so  as  to 
carry  the  fruit  high  that  it  may  not  be  spattered  by 
heavy  rains.  If  the  canes  are  low  it  is  well  to  mulch 
while  the  fruit  is  ripening,  but  this  must  be  removed 
at  the  earliest  possible  time  after  the  fruit  has  been 
harvested,  so  that  the  roots  may  not  be  drawn  to  the 
surface. 

Harvesting  and  Marketing — Currants  are  marketed 
in  quart  baskets  in  the  same  manner  as  strawberries 
and  raspberries.  It  is  a  fruit  that  will  hang  a  long  time 
on  the  bushes,  especially  if  grown  under  the  shade  of 
trees  or  when  the  foliage  is  heavy,  and  is  often  in 
condition  for  marketing  for  more  than  a  month.  Some 
growers  pack  about  ten  pounds  of  this  fruit  in  a  common 
market  basket  and  sell  by  the  pound.  The  prices  range 
from  five  cents  to  fifteen  cents  per  quart,  with  an  average 
of  perhaps  not  far  from  eight  to  ten  cents  for  the 
season.  The  yield  under  good  conditions  is  often  200 
bushels  per  acre  and  upwards. 

VARIETIES 

While  there  are  many  more  or  less  distinct  varie- 
ties, they  are  not  so  marked  in  their  variations  as 
most  of  the  other  fruits.  It  is  often  said  that  the 
difference  in  the  varieties  sold  under  different  names 
is  due  to  the  treatment  they  receive  as  to  soil  and  fer- 
tilizers, and  this  is  in  a  measure  true,  yet  there  are 
several  varieties  that  are  marked  enough  to  warrant 
distinct  names.  Among  the  best  of  these  are: 


THE     CDKHANT 


149 


Cherry  (Figure  77) — Bush  stocky  and  vigorous, 
producing  short  bunches  of  large  berries  of  a  decidedly 
acid  quality.  This  variety  is  found  badly  mixed  in 
most  of  the  nurseries  with  the  Versailles,  a  long  bunched 
and  more  vigorous  grower,  but 
not  as  valuable  a  variety.  For 
this  reason  the  Cherry  is  not 
as  desirable  as  some  other 
varieties  that  have  been  kept 
free  from  mixtures. 

Wilder — A  variety  resem- 
bling the  Ctierry  somewhat, 
but  with  a  longer  bunch  and 
rather  more  vigor  of  bush. 
The  stock  has  been  kept  free 
from  mixture  and  is  free  from 
the  objection  to  the  Cherry. 

Fay's  Prolific — This  is 
perhaps  the  most  planted  of 
any  variety.  The  bush  is  vig- 
orous and  very  productive,  the 
fruit  is  large,  bunches  longer 
than  the  Cherry,  but  of  about 
the  same  degree  of  acidity.  It 
is  a  more  valuable  variety  than 
the  latter  from  the  fact  that  it 
is  entirely  free  from  mixtures. 

Red  Cross — Eesembles  the 
Wilder  very  much  in  bush  and  bunch  of  fruit,  but 
perhaps  a  little  more  vigorous. 

Pomona — A  very  vigorous  and  productive  variety 
of  especially  good  quality.  Grown  in  a  very  rich  soil 
the  fruit  is  of  good  size  and  its  immense  productiveness 
and  fine  quality  make  it  often  one  of  the  most  profitable 
varieties  in  cultivation. 


Fig.  77— Cherry  Currant 


150 


SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 


White  Imperial  (Figure  78) — White  varieties  of 
this  fruit  are  not  very  popular  in  the  markets,  but  as  the 
fruit  is  much  less  acid  than  the  red  kinds  and  of  much 
better  flavor,  they  should  be  planted  for  home  use,  and 
the  markets  be  educated  to  know  of  their  superior  qual- 
ity. The  above  variety  is  the 
best  in  quality  of  this  group, 
and  is  equally  productive  with 
the  White  Grape,  which  is  also 
a  good  kind,  but  more  acid 
than  the  latter. 

The  Black  Currant  (Ribes 
nigrum) — The  black  currant 
is  a  vigorous  growing,  hardy 
ajid  productive  fruit,  but  is 
not  generally  in  demand  ex- 
cept in  markets  where  there  are 
many  English  or  German  peo- 
ple. In  its  uncooked  state  it 
has  a  peculiar  flavor  that  is 
not  liked  by  Americans,  but  it 
makes  a  most  delicious  jelly  or 
marmalade.  It  is  easily  grown, 
is  free  from  all  insect  pests  and 
fungous  diseases  that  attack 
the  red  currant,  and  where 
there  is  a  market  for  the  fruit 
at  reasonable  prices  it  would 
be  very  profitable.  If  a  hybrid 
could  be  produced  between  this  and  the  red  currant, 
with  improved  quality  and  with  the  same  hardiness  and 
vigor,  it  would  be  a  valuable  addition  to  our  hardy  fruits. 
Among  the  best  varieties  are  the  Black  English,  Black 
Naples  and  Lee's  Prolific,  the  latter  perhaps  being  the 
best  of  the  three. 


Pie.  78-White  Imperial 
Currant 


THE     GOOSEBERRY  151 

The  Golden  Flowering  Currant  (Ribes  aureum) — • 
This  is  the  common  flowering  currant  of  the  garden, 
an  improved  variety  of  which,  known  as  CrandalFs  Im- 
proved, has  been  introduced,  that  produces  a  much  larger 
berry  of  rather  better  quality  than  the  original.  The 
principal  objection  to  this  variety  is  the  habit  of  not 
ripening  all  of  its  fruit  at  one  time.  Like  the  black 
currant,  this  is  of  little  value  for  market,  but  offers 
some  hope  of  value  if  it  can  be  crossed  with  some  other 
species  and  thus  give  us  a  hardy  and  vigorous  strain 
that  will  be  as  free  from  disease  and  insects.  Crandall's 
Improved  is  the  only  variety  that  is  offered  by  nur- 
serymen. 

See  Chapters  XX  and  XXI  for  protection  from 
insects  and  fungous  pests. 

THE    GOOSEBEREY 

EUROPEAN  (Ribes  grossularid) 
AMERICAN  (Ribes  oxyacanthoides) 

The  gooseberry  is  not  a  fruit  that  finds  a  ready 
sale  in  our  markets  in  large  quantities,  but  its  consump- 
tion is  increasing,  and  it  should  be  more  largely  used. 
The  season  for  marketing  is  longer  than  that  of  the 
currant,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  sold  in  both  the  green 
and  the  ripe  state.  The  conditions  of  growth  are  about 
the  same  as  for  the  currant,  but  it  will  grow  fairly  well 
under  the  shade  of  trees.  The  land  should  be  made  rich 
with  an  abundance  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  and 
nitrogen  enough  to  make  a  fair  growth  of  wood.  In 
pruning  the  same  plan  should  be  followed  as  with  the 
currant,  cutting  out  the  old  wood  after  it  is  more  than 
three  years  old,  and  thinning  out  some  of  the  small  and 
weak  new  shoots,  and  thus  forcing  the  growth  into 
those  shoots  that  are  left.  Among  the  varieties  that 


152          SUCCESSFUL  FBUIT  CULTURE 

succeed  over  the  largest  area  may  be  mentioned  the 
following : 

Columbus — Fruit  large,  greenish-yellow,  and  of 
good  quality.  Plant  vigorous  a^J  very  productive.  One 
of  the  best. 

Downing — A  very  hardy  and  productive  variety, 
with  light  green  fruit  of  medium  size.  It  is  especially 
valuable  for  cooking  on  account  of  its  tender  skin  and 
good  quality. 

Red  Jacket — One  of  the  best  of  the  red  fruited 
varieties.  Fruit  of  large  size  and  good  quality. 

Industry — An  English  variety  that  under  some 
conditions  is  very  satisfactory.  The  fruit  is  of  large 
size  and  good  quality,  but  the  bush  generally  makes  a 
slow  growth. 

For  insects  and  fungous  diseases  attacking  the 
gooseberry,  see  Chapters  XX  and  XXI. 


XIV 

9  THE  STRAWBERRY 

EUROPEAN   (Fragaria  vesca) 
AMERICAN    (Fragaria   Virginiana) 

In  some  particulars  the  strawberry  is  the  most 
important  fruit  crop  of  the  temperate  zone.  It  rivals 
the  apple  in  the  time  that  we  may  have  it  in  the  market 
in  a  fresh  condition.  Coming  from  the  extreme  South 
soon  after  Xew  Year,  a  supply  is  kept  up  from  the 
South  to  the  North  and  from  the  North  to  the  South 
until  August.  It  is  the  first  fruit  of  the  season,  and 
will  produce,  under  good  conditions,  more  bushels  per 
acre  than  the  potato.  It  is  of  especial  importance  to 
the  grower  just  starting  into  business  because  an  income 
can  be  obtained  within  twelve  to  fourteen  months  after 
planting.  It  is  a  fruit  that  succeeds  in  a  great  variety 
of  soils,  but  is  most  profitably  grown  on  a  deep,  rich 
sandy  loam.  In  a  very  dry  time  on  light  land  the  crop 
is  often  injured  by  drouth,  but  if  a  heavy  coating  of 
stable  manure  is  turned  under  before  setting  and  the 
land  is  well  mulched  before  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen, 
a  crop  will  be  carried  through  a  great  deal  of  dry 
weather.  The  strawberry  often  yields  a  very  heavy  crop 
on  reclaimed  meadows,  but  under  such  conditions  the 
tendency  is  to  run  to  plant  instead  of  fruit,  and  the 
fertilizers  used  should  contain  a  large  amount  of  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid.  A  very  good  fertilizer  is  made 
of  three  parts  of  good  hard  wood  ashes  to  one  of  fine 
ground  bone  used  at  the  rate  of  from  one  to  two  tons 


154          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

per  acre,  according  to  the  fertility  already  in  the  soil. 
A  southern  slope  should  be  selected  for  an  early  crop 
and  a  northern  one  for  a  late  crop. 

FITTING     THE     LAND 

It  will  be  especially  advantageous  to  work  the  soil  9 
deeply  with  a  trench  plow,  fining  it  to  a  depth  of  fifteen 
to  twenty  inches,  as  the  more  deeply  and  finely  it  is 
worked  the  greater  will  be  its  capacity  for  resisting 
drouth.  If  it  is  plowed  in  the  fall  it  will  work  up  much 
earlier  in  the  spring,  and  if  stable  manure  is  plowed 
under  in  the  fall  it  will  give  better  results  than  if  turned 
under  in  the  spring.  Turf  land  that  is  to  be  devoted 
to  the  strawberry  should  be  planted  with  some  hoed 
crop  like  potatoes,  etc.,  for  one  season,  or  it  may  be 
planted  with  some  leguminous  crop  like  cowpeas,  soy 
beans,  hairy  vetch  or  clovers,  that  can  be  turned,  under 
to  supply  nitrogen,  and  also  humus  to  hold  the  moisture. 
The  surface  of  the  land  should  be  thoroughly  fined  with 
the  harrow  and  drag  or  leveler  and  marked  out  carefully 
to  rows  of  accurate  distances,  that  the  work  of  culti- 
vating may  be  done  quickly  and  easily.  If  the  land  is 
not  well  supplied  with  plant  food  any  good  fruit  fer- 
tilizer may  be  scattered  along  the  rows,  to  be  worked 
in  as  the  plants  are  set,  the  remainder  to  be  worked 
in  with  a  weeder  or  fine-toothed  cultivator  within  a  few 
days  after  planting. 

TIME     FOR     PLANTING 

While  the  strawberry  may  be  planted  at  any  time 
in  the  year  when  the  ground  will  work,  it  is  the  practice 
of  most  of  the  large  commercial  growers  to  set  only 
in  the  spring.  This  is  done  so  that  the  plants  may 
have  plenty  of  time  to  make  a  full  growth  and  mature 
an  abundance  of  blossom  buds,  and  the  largest  crops  will 
be  produced  when  planted  at  this  time.  Strong  layers 


THE     STRAWBERRY  155 

or  potted  plants  will  yield  a  few  very  large  berries,  and 
it  is  from  these  plants  that  we  often  obtain  the  prize 
berries,  but  the  cost  of  plants  and  the  small  crop  ob- 
tained does  not  warrant  the  outlay  if  grown  for  profit. 

PLANTS 

Only  plants  with  young,  white  roots  should  be  used 
if  the  best  results  are  expected,  and  plants  taken  from 
a  bed  grown  for  fruiting  are  not  as  good  as  those  grown 
for  plants  alone  when  all  of  the  plants  are  dug  out  by 
lifting  the  soil  for  several  inches  deep.  In  digging, 
the  plants  should  be  protected  from  the  air  as  soon  as 


Fig.  79-  Fig.  80- 

Method  of  Planting  Perfect  and  Imperfect  Varieties 

out  of  the  ground  by  putting  into  sacks  or  covered 
baskets  and  be  taken  to  a  cellar  or  moist  shed,  where 
the  dead  leaves  and  runners  are  all  pulled  off,  the  roots 
straightened  out  and  placed  in  bunches,  or  if  to  be  sent 
away  tied  in  bundles  of  twenty-five  or  fifty  each.  Placed 
in  this  way  for  a  little  time,  the  roots  are  straight  and 
easily  planted.  If  plants  are  to  be  shipped  for  some 
distance  the  roots  should  be  packed  in  damp  moss  with 
the  leaves  exposed  to  the  air,  when  they  will  keep  for  a 
long  time  in  good  condition. 

Staminate  and  Pistillate,  or  Perfect  and  Imperfect 
Plants — In  selecting  varieties  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  if  those  with  pistils  only  are  planted,  little  or 


156 


SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 


no  fruit  will  be  produced,  but  if  every  third  or  fifth 
•  row  be  of  a  variety  that  has  perfect  flowers,  all  will  be 
fertilized  and  a  good  crop  the  result.  The  diagram, 
Figure  79,  illustrates  this  planting;  or  if  it  is  desired 
to  secure  plants  of  the  staminate  variety  for  planting 
unmixed,  they  may  be  planted  as  shown  in  Figure  80. 

PLANTING 

There  are  many  different  ways  of  putting  the  plants 
into  the  ground,  the  success  of  any  one  of  which  depends 
upon  the  roots  being  placed  deeply  in  the  moist  soil, 


Fig.  81-PlantedToo  Deep  Fig.  82— Planted  Too  High 

well  spread  out  and  the  soil  firmed  closely  in  contact 
with  them.  A  very  good  way  to  determine  if  the  plants 
are  properly  set  is  to  take  hold  of  the  leaf,  and  if  the 
plant  pulls  out  it  is  not  planted  firmly  enough,  while 
if  the  leaf  breaks  off  it  is  properly  firmed.  The  depth 
to  plant  is  illustrated  by  the  accompanying  figures : 
Figure  81  shows  a  plant  set  too  deep,  Figure  82  one 
too  shallow,  and  Figure  83  one  set  just  right.  Methods 
or  systems  of  planting  are  very  numerous,  but  only  two 
or  three  will  receive  attention  here. 


THE     STRAWBERRY 


157 


The  Hill  System — This  consists  in  setting  the 
plants  in  rows  of  from  three  to  three  and  one-half  feet 
apart  and  one  .foot  apart  in  the  row,  and  keeping 
the  runners  cut  off,  when  at  the  end  of  the  season 
each  plant  has  made  a  large  number  of  crown  buds,  and 
under  favorable  conditions  will  produce  a  large  number 
of  berries.  All  of  the  run- 
ners are  of  course  pulled  or 
cut  off  as  they  start  out. 
The  only  serious  objection 
to  this  system  is  that  with 
the  roots  continually  start- 
ing out  higher  on  the  crown 
as  new  buds  are  formed,  the 
plants  at  the  end  of  the 
season  are  rather  shallow 
rooted,  and  are  liable  to  be 
heaved  out  during  the  win- 
ter unless  a  deep  covering 
of  mulch  is  placed  around 
them.  This  method  has  the 
advantage  that  with  the  runners  removed  the  ground 
about  the  plants  can  be  kept  clean  very  easily  and 
cheaply,  and  the  fruit  easily  mulched  and  harvested. 

The  Hedge  Row  System  (of  Kellogg) — This  is 
a  modification  of  the  hill  system,  the  plants  being  set 
in  rows  two  and  one-half  to  three  feet  apart,  and  in 

x  x  x  x  x  x  x 
oxoxoxoxo 
xxxxxxxx 

Fig.  84    The  Hedge  Row  System 

the  rows  about  two  feet,  and  treated  the  same  way  as 
in  the  hill  system  except  that  plants  are  allowed  to  fill 
in  the  space  at  eight  to  ten  inches  apart.  This  is  in 
fact  but  a  modified  hill  svstem  in  which  the  hills  come 


Fit-.  83— Planted  Just  Right 


158          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

close  together,  thus  serving  to  protect  one  another,  and, 
the  ground  being  well  filled  with  roots,  there  is  less 
danger  of  their  being  heaved  out  by  frost.  The 
same  heavy  covering  during  the  winter  will  be  needed 
as  with  the  hill  system,  taking  care  not  to  cover  the 
crowns  too  deeply.  In  Figure  84  the  old  plants  are 
represented  by  o,  the  runners  by  x. 

Wide  Matted  Row — This  consists  in  setting  the 
plants  in  rows  three,  four  or  five  feet  apart,  according 
to  the  richness  of  the  soil,  and  one  to  two  feet  in  the 


Fig.  85-Strawberry  Field  with  Wide  Matted  Rows 

rows,  and  letting  the  runners  grow  over  the  space  be- 
tween the  rows  from  four  to  six  inches  apart,  thus 
making  beds  of  fruiting  plants  eighteen  inches  to  three 
feet  wide.  Figure  85  shows  strawberry  field  of  A.  A. 
Marshall  of  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  set  4x5  feet,  and  run  into 
beds  three  feet  wide;  irrigation  pipes  are  seen  in  the 
foreground.  Some  growers  place  the  runners  the  proper 
distance  apart  as  they  grow,  and  others  let  the  bed  be 
covered  in  a  natural  way  and  then  dig  out  the  surplus 
plants  in  the  fall,  the  last  of  August  or  early  September. 
The  first  plan,  however,  is  the  better,  as  then  each 


THE     STRAWBERRY  159 

plant  has  an  abundance  of  room  to  fully  mature  and 
will  give  a  much  larger  crop  of  fruit  with  larger  berries 
than  the  small  plants  of  the  second  method. 

The  Matted  Row  System — Probably  more  berries 
are  grown  by  this  system  than  by  any  other,  and  perhaps 
it  requires  less  labor,  yet  the  size  of  the  fruit  will  be 
smaller  and,  in  time  of  drouth,  the  ground  between  the 
plants  not  being  stirred  easily,  the  roots  will  be  near 
the  surface,  and  therefore  more  injured.  One  advan- 
tage that  the  wide  matted  and  the  matted  row  have  over 
the  hill  and  the  hedge  row  system  is  that  the  roots  are 
running  through  all  of  the  soil,  holding  it  together,  and 
the  plants  are  not  as  likely  to  be  thrown  out  by  frost. 
Whatever  the  system,  the  crop  will  depend  more  upon 
whether  the  land  is  rich  in  plant  food  and  has  an 
abundant  supply  of  moisture  in  it  at  the  time  the  fruit 
is  maturing  than  anything  else. 

CULTIVATION 

If  the  plants  have  been  set  in  regular  lines  both 
ways,  most  of  the  work  of  cultivation  can  be  done  by 
the  horse  cultivator  or  the  small  hand  cultivators,  of 
which  there  are  many  different  kinds.  All  of  the  run- 
ners are  generally  cut  off  until  the  plants  get  strong, 
or  up  to  about  the  first  of  July,  after  which  such  as  are 
needed  are  allowed  to  grow.  After  the  runners  begin 
to  grow,  if  in  the  matted  row,  great  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  disturb  them  after  they  have  become  rooted.  If 
the  plants  are  grown  by  the  hedge  row  or  in  the  hill 
system,  the  runners  being  cut  off  before  they  are  rooted, 
they  will  not  interfere  with  the  use  of  the  hand  or  wheel 
hoe,  and  better  work  can  be  done,  and  be  done  more 
cheaply.  The  land  should  be  kept  fine  and  mellow  to 
the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches,  and  the  drier  the  time 
the  more  frequently  the  soil  should  be  cultivated. 


160         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

If  the  plants  are  not  making  the  growth  that  is 
desired,  more  fertilizer  should  be  applied  about  July  1, 
and  again  early  in  September.  Chemical  fertilizers 
should  not  be  applied  when  the  leaves  are  wet,  but,  if 
dry,  can  be  applied  safely  unless  used  in  very  large 
quantity.  If  it  should  adhere  to  the  leaves  it  can  be 
easily  brushed  off  with  a  broom  or  by  drawing  a  bush 
over  the  row.  If  large  quantities  of  quickly  soluble 
fertilizer  like  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  ammonia  or 
the  potash  salts  be  used,  it  must  be  scattered  at  a  little 
distance  from  the  plants  and  the  soil  must  be  frequently 
stirred  to  keep  it  from  burning  the  leaves  as  it  is 
deposited  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  by  evaporation. 

During  the  first  season  the  young  plants  should  be 
sprayed  two  or  three  times  to  keep  the  rust  fungus  from 
gaining  a  hold.  In  soils  that  are  infested  with  the 
plants  known  as  the  chickweeds,  of  which  there  are 
two  troublesome  species,  which  grow  during  very  cold 
weather,  the  land  must  be  cultivated  until  the  ground 
freezes,  and  also  in  the  spring  the  small  chickweed 
plants  must  be  weeded  out.  Under  this  condition  the 
cost  of  cultivation  is  much  increased  and  the  crop  will 
not  be  as  large  as  in  land  free  from  this  pest. 

IRRIGATION 

One  of  the  great  needs  in  strawberry  growing  is 
an  abundance  of  water  as  the  fruit  is  ripening,  and  even 
if  the  soil  is  naturally  moist  and  we  have  done  all  that 
could  be  done  to  preserve  what  there  is  in  it,  there 
often  comes  a  season  when  a  crop  would  be  largely 
benefited  by  the  use  of  water  on  the  surface.  Of  the 
profits  resulting  from  the  establishment  of  an  artificial 
supply  of  water  we  have  no  figures,  but  that  must  depend 
largely  upon  the  cost  of  the  water  and  its  application. 
If  one  is  situated  so  that  water  can  be  carried  to  the 


THE     STRAWBERRY 


1G1 


strawberry  field  by  gravity  in  open  ditches  or  cheap 
troughs,  the  cost  need  be  but  small,  while  if  to  be 
carried  a  long  distance  in  pipes  and  be  raised  to  a 
considerable  hight  it  would  be  very  much  greater.  There 
are  two  methods  of  applying  water  most  generally  em- 
ployed, the  ditch  method  and  the  sprinkling  method. 
The  Ditch  Method — This  is  the  simplest  and  most 
used.  The  water  is  let  into  ditches  at  the  upper  part 
of  the  field  where  it  can  run  down  between  the  rows  as 


Fig.  86-Ditcb  Method  of  Irrigation 


shown  in  Figure  86.  If  the  fall  is  so  great  that  the  soil 
will  be  washed,  hay  or  straw  is  trodden  into  the  ditch, 
when  it  will  run  more  slowly  and  spread  out  bettor 
among  the  plants.  If  the  land  is  nearly  level,  the  water 
must  be  directed  by  means  of  frequent  small  ditches  and 
be  carried  to  different  parts  of  the  field  by  means  of 
pipes  or  troughs.  Cheap  hose  may  be  made  of  cotton 
cloth  for  this  purpose  that  will  last  a  long  time  if  taken 
up  and  thoroughly  dried  after  being  used. 


162          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

The  Sprinkling  Method — This  method  is  not  so 
much  in  use  as  the  last,  but  possesses  some  merits 
over  it,  as  the  water  is  applied  in  the  most  natural 
manner  and  over  the  whole  surface,  and  when  properly 
applied  has  generally  given  remarkable  results.  It 
can,  however,  be  applied  only  where  there  is  a  good 
head  or  force  to  distribute  in  a  fine  spray  to  considerable 
distance.  The  best  time  for  applying  water  is  an  im- 
portant matter.  It  has  been  found  that  the  same 
amount  of  water  applied  at  night  will  do  much  more 
good  than  if  applied  in  the  morning,  that  there  is  less 
loss  by  evaporation,  and  the  ground  is  less  hardened. 
If  water  is  applied,  enough  should  be  used  to  wet  down 
to  the  roots  fully,  or  little  or  no  benefit  will  result,  for 
if  only  the  surface  soil  is  wet  the  roots  work  up  to  the 
surface  and  continued  dry  weather  will  be  more  de- 
structive than  if  no  water  were  used. 

WINTER      PROTECTION 

While  the  strawberry  is  perfectly  hardy,  growing, 
as  it  does,  at  the  extreme  North,  if  the  ground  is  not 
covered  with  snow  from  the  time  it  is  frozen  in  the  fall 
till  settled  weather  comes  on  in  the  spring,  the  plants 
will  be  heaved  out,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  the  practice 
of  all  Northern  growers  to  cover  the  strawberry  fields 
as  soon  as  the  ground  is  frozen  in  the  fall.  If  deeply 
covered  before  the  ground  is  frozen  the  plants  are  often 
smothered,  and  all  of  the  old  leaves  destroyed,  and, 
while  this  does  not  ruin  the  crop,  yet  the  plants  do  not 
start  with  the  vigor  that  they  would  if  these  leaves 
were  uninjured. 

Mulching  Material — Various  materials  are  used  for 
this  purpose,  among  the  best  of  which  are  pine  needles, 
rye  straw,  oat  straw,  meadow  or  sedge  hay,  corn  stover, 
buckwheat  straw,  soy  beans,  etc.,  etc. ;  of  these  perhaps 


THE     STRAWBERRY 


163 


the  best  are  the  pine  needles,  clean  rye  or  oat  straw  and 
soy  bean  straw.  But  whatever  is  used,  it  should  be  free 
from  weed  seeds,  as  nothing  reduces  the  yield  of  a  plan- 
tation more  certainly  than  numerous  small  plants  grow- 
ing about  them  and  carrying  off  moisture  and  plant 
food  from  the  land. 

In  the  spring  the  mulch  is  drawn  off  from  the  crown 
of  the  plants  as  soon  as  growth  has  begun,  and  after 
the  plants  have  begun  to  bloom  it  is  best  to  draw  the 
mulch  closely  under  them  so  as  to  keep  the  fruit  clean 
and  the  crown  roots 
shaded. 

Some  growers 
remove  the  mulch 
in  the  early  spring, 
clean  out  all  small 
weeds,  stir  the  sur- 
face soil  and  then 
put  it  back  close  up 
about  the  plants 
again.  This  in- 
sures a  clean  bed 
and  helps  to  retain 
the  soil  moisture 
that  in  light  land 
is  so  often  deficient. 


Fig.  87— Staminate  or  "Perfect1 
Strawberry  Flower 

VARIETIES 


Among  the  hundreds  of  varieties  that  are  in  cul- 
tivation, there  are  many  that  succeed  well  in  one  place 
that  do  not  do  well  in  others,  and  the  grower  will  have 
to  depend  largely  upon  trial  of  several  sorts  and  the 
testimony  of  those  who  are  successful  in  growing  this 
fruit  in  his  own  locality.  It  may  be  said  that  no 
variety  will  succeed  long  in  one  locality.  It  is  a  fact 
that  no  varieties  are  generally  grown  now  that  were 


164 


SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 


popular  ten  years  ago,  and  some  do  not  retain  theii 
vigor  even  that  time.  It  is  therefore  the  part  of  wisdom 
to  have  a  trial  bed  of  the  most  promising  new  kinds  in 
order  to  know  what  is  best  adapted  to  each  individual 
locality.  The  local  experiment  station  will  be  the  first 
to  try  all  promising  kinds,  the  best  of  which  each  grower 
should  give  a  trial.  Varieties  are  either  staminate,  or 
perfect  (Figure  87),  those  having  both  stamens  and  pis- 
tils, and  will  bear  fruit  if  planted  alone,  or  pistillate 
(Figure  88),  the  flowers  having  only  pistils,  and  must  be 

planted  near  some 
staminate  variety  to 
produce  fruit.  The 
pistillate  flowered 
varieties  are  more 
productive,  as 
a  general  rule,  than 
are  the  staminate 
kind,  due  probably 
to  the  strain  on  the 
flower  of  the  latter 
to  produce  pollen. 
Among  the  varie- 
ties that  are  most 
grown  are : 

Clyde — A  stam- 
plant    and    freedom 
rather    light    land, 


Fig.  88-PIstlIIate  or  "Imperfect" 
Strawberry  Flower 


inate   variety   of   great   vigor   of 

from    disease   that    does    well    on 

when  the  plants   are  not  too  close  together,   but  on 

heavy  soil,  or  if  the  plants  are  very  close  together,  the 

color  is  poor  and  the  berry  is  soft.     It  requires  a  rich 

soil  to  make  it  carry  out  to  perfection  the  large  crop 

of  berries  that  it  will  set. 

Haverland — A  pistillate  variety  that  has  made  the 
largest  record  for  productiveness  of  any  now  in  cultiva- 
tion. The  fruit  is  medium  to  large,  and  is  borne  on 


THE     STRAWBERRY  165 

long  and  slender  stalks  that  do  not  stand  up  under  the 
weight  of  its  heavy  crop  of  fruit.  This  fault,  together 
with  the  small  size  of  the  berries  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions, places  it  in  the  list  of  only  medium  value. 

Glen  Mary — A  perfect  flowered  variety  of  vigorous 
growth  and  good  quality.  The  fruit  is  large  but  some- 
what irregular  in  form.  The  flowers  do  not  produce 
as  much  pollen  as  some  other  varieties,  and  if  planted 
as  a  fertilizer  for  pistillate  sorts  it  should  be  planted 
in  every  third  or  fourth  row. 

Sample — One  of  the  most  productive  pistillate 
varieties,  producing  berries  of  large  size  and  good  qual- 
ity. For  general  purposes  it  has  proved  one  of  the 
most  profitable.  It  is  medium  in  season  and  often 
carries  its  fruit  very  late. 

Brandywine — One  of  the  most  vigorous  perfect 
flowered  varieties,  producing  berries  of  large  size,  firm 
and  of  the  best  of  quality.  It  is  a  rather  late  variety, 
and  under  most  conditions  is  productive,  but  under 
others  it  is  reported  as  not  productive.  It  is  a  good 
pollenizerfor  late  varieties. 

Other  varieties  that  are  of  value  under  some 
conditions  are  Bubach,  Senator  Dunlap,  Nick  Ohmer, 
Seaford,  Gandy,  Warfield,  Excelsior,  Marshall,  etc.,  etc. 

MARKETING 

The  strawberry  is  a  very  perishable  fruit,  and  must 
be  handled  with  the  greatest  skill  to  give  the  best 
results.  If  possible  the  picking  should  be  done  early 
in  the  morning  or  the  latter  part  of  the  day,  and  after 
picking  at  any  time  the  fruit  should  be  taken  to  some 
cool  place  where  there  is  not  too  much  of  a  draft  of  air 
to  dry  them  too  rapidly.  It  is  not  advisable  to  put  them 
on  the  ice,  if  it  can  be  avoided,  on  account  of  the  con- 
densed moisture  that  will  collect  on  the  berries  when 


166         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

brought  from  the  cold  storage,  yet  if  properly  exposed 
to  cool,  dry  air  for  a  little  time  after  being  taken  from 
cold  storage  they  will  not  be  injured  by  this  treatment. 

Package — The  quart  basket  is  almost  universally 
used,  packed  in  a  bushel  (thirty-two-quart),  twenty- 
four-quart,  and  sixteen-quart  crate  or  carrier.  Most  of 
the  thirty-two-quart  crates  are  now  considered  as  gift 
packages,  and  are  not  returned  to  the  shipper,  but  are 
sold  to  local  growers  near  the  markets  for  ten  cents 
each.  If  the  grower  delivers  his  fruit  to  the  retailer 
he  may  have  his  crates  reserved,  and  thus  only  a  small 
number  will  be  needed  to  market  a  large  crop  of  berries. 
One  of  the  best  packages  for  carrying  and  displaying 
the  fruit  is  the  "Marshall"  carrier,  Figure  89,  in  which 
twenty-four  quarts  of  berries  are  packed,  and  it  has  the 
advantage  that  all  of  the  fruit  is  exposed  to  the  view 
of  the  purchaser  without  removing  any  partitions,  and 
if  well  put  up  will  attract  customers  by  the  large  amount 
of  fruit  exposed  in  one  mass.  This  figure  shows  thirty 
quarts,  with  only  from  eight  to  fifteen  berries  in  a 
basket.  Soiled  baskets  should  never  be  used,  as  the 
fruit  shows  to  better  advantage  in  new  baskets,  and 
the  new  ones  are  as  cheap  as  old  baskets  collected  from 
the  consumers. 

Picking — This  is  one  of  the  greatest  problems  of 
the  strawberry  grower.  Some  employ  boys,  some  men 
and  some  women.  The  first  are  the  most  difficult  to 
manage,  and  do  the  work  in  the  most  uncertain  way. 
Girls  and  women  do  their  work  well,  are  easily  managed, 
but  are  rather  slow  in  many  cases.  Quick,  active  young 
men  make  good  pickers ;  the  cost  per  quart,  however,  is 
much  greater,  but  they  can  often  be  brought  into  the 
field  in  times  of  an  emergency  when  other  help  is  not 
available.  Numerous  methods  of  recording  the  number 
of  boxes  picked  by  the  different  pickers  have  been  de- 
vised, perhaps  one  of  the  best  of  which  is  the  card  system, 


THE     STRAWBERRY  16V 

where  the  picker  keeps  his  record  card,  and  when  fruit 
has  been  picked  the  record  is  made  by  punching  out  the 
proper  number  of  boxes.  At  the  end  of  each  day  or 
week,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  first  card  is  taken  up  and 
the  total  number  is  punched  on  another  card,  which 
is  kept  by  the  picker  until  payment  is  made.  In  picking 
the  fruit,  each  berry  should  be  picked  by  the  stem,  and 
not  be  pulled  off,  and  for  a  local  market  should  be 
allowed  to  become  fully  ripe  before  being  picked. 

Sorting  and  Packing — It  will  be  found  very  difficult 
to  find  pickers  in  many  places  who  will  sort  the  fruit 
as  picked  so  that  it  will  be  most  satisfactory  for  a  fancy 
market,  and  it  is  therefore  the  practice  of  most  growers 
of  fancy  fruit  to  have  it  sorted  and  packed  in  a  shed  or 
house  near  the  strawberry  field.  All  that  is  done  often, 
where  the  pickers  are  reliable,  is  to  sort  over  and  pack 
the  top  layer  of  berries,  picking  out  any  defective  berries 
and  replacing  them  with  sound  ones,  and  turning  the 
top  layer  so  as  to  present  the  best  appearance.  Others 
turn  out  all  of  the  berries  in  a  box  and  sort  and  pack 
all  of  the  fruit.  This  must  be  done  very  carefully,  or 
the  berries  will  be  so  crushed  that  they  will  not  stand 
up  long  after  they  reach  the  market.  If,  however,  this 
is  properly  done,  the  fruit  will  keep  longer,  for  all  of 
the  overripe  berries  having  been  removed,  decay  will  be 
less  rapid,  and  much  better  prices  be  obtained. 

Many  growers  make  two  sorts,  those  that  are  perfect 
in  every  way  and  of  large  size,  and  those  of  small  size 
and  possibly  with  some  other  defect.  The  second  grades 
are  sold  for  canning,  making  syrups,  etc.,  and  often  will 
sell  at  as  good  prices  as  the  average  run  of  berries  not 
sorted,  while  the  fancy  berries  bring  high  prices  and 
sell  the  seconds. 

The  common  bushel  crate  or  carrier  is  the  most 
used  for  shipping  to  near  markets,  but  when  shipped 
long  distances  those  holding  forty-eight  or  sixty-four 


THE     STRAWBERRY  169 

quarts  are  largely  in  use.  The  Marshall  carrier  (Figure 
89),  holding  twenty-four  quarts,  is  especially  adapted  to 
fancy  berries,  as  all  the  fruit  can  be  seen  at  once  upon 
taking  oit'  the  cover,  and  presents  the  most  attractive 
appearance  possible. 

For  insects  and  fungous  pests,  see  Chapters  XX 
and     XXI. 


XV 
THE  CRANBERRY 

(  Vaccinium    oxy coccus) 

This  delicious  fruit  is  distributed  over  almost  the 
entire  country  and  under  favorable  conditions  produces 
large  and  profitable  crops.  The  entire  crop  of  the 
country  for  a  single  season  has  been  over  808,000 
bushels,  of  which  Massachusetts  produced  432,000 
bushels,  New  Jersey  175,000  bushels,  Wisconsin  101,000 
bushels.  It  can  only  be  profitably  grown  in  a  soil  nearly 
saturated  with  water,  bogs  and  wet  meadows  being 
utilized  for  this  crop.  The  conditions  'for  success  are 
wet,  boggy  land,  with  an  abundant  supply  of  water, 
so  that  the  "bog"  may  be  flooded  in  a  short  time  in 
case  of  a  late  frost  in  the  spring  when  the  plants  are 
in  bloom,  during  the  summer  to  prevent  injury  'from 
the  "leaf  roller"  insect,  and  in  the  fall  to  protect  from 
frost  before  the  fruit  is  gathered.  Water  should  be 
in  sufficient  supply  also  to  keep  the  bog  flowed  all 
winter. 

PREPARATION    OF    THE    BOO 

All  growth  of  trees,  bushes,  grasses  or  other  plants 
must  be  removed  from  the  surface  and  the  bog  made 
level  by  grading.  Ditches  should  be  made  at  intervals 
so  that  the  water  may  set  back  into  them  to  hasten 
flooding,  and  to  quickly  drain  away  the  water  after 
flooding.  The  level  of  the  water  in  the  ditches  for  the 
best  results  is  from  ten  to  twelve  inches  below  the  surface 


THE     CRANBERRY  171 

at  all  times.  After  all  growth  has  been  removed  from 
the  surface  and  the  land  roughly  graded  perfectly  level, 
it  should  be  made  as  fine  and  mellow  as  possible,  after 
which  a  covering  of  clean,  sharp  sand  from  three  to 
six  inches  deep  is  spread  evenly  over  it.  The  land  is 
then  ready  for  the  plants. 

Setting  the  Plants — The  plants,  or  rather  cuttings, 
are  the  end  runners  of  established  bogs,  twelve  to  fifteen 
inches  long,  cut  from  the  edges  of  the  rows  or  paths, 
or  often  taken  from  some  more  solid  part  of  the  bed. 
If  possible  these  cuttings  should  be  taken  from  some 
spot  where  the  plants  are  producing  large  crops  of 
large,  finely  colored  berries.  The  bog  is  marked  off  in 
from  nine  to  eighteen-inch  squares,  and  the  cuttings, 
three  or  four  in  a  bunch,  are  forced  through  the  sand 
into  the  fine  soil  below  with  a  blunt  wooden  dibble  or 
paddle,  and  the  sand  pressed  firmly  about  them.  In 
planting  the  cuttings,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  break 
off  the  lower  end  of  them  in  forcing  through  the  sand. 
After  planting  no  weeds  should  be  allowed  to  grow,  all 
that  appear  being  pulled  out  by  hand.  It  is  not  the 
general  practice  of  growers  to  use  the  hand  hoe  unless 
obliged  to  do  so,  and  a  good  bog  is  so  soft  that  it  would 
not  hold  up  a  horse.  Sometimes  when  the  land  is  espe- 
cially poor,  a  light  dressing  of  any  good  commercial 
fruit  fertilizer  just  before  the  sand  is  put  on  or  after 
the  plantation  has  been  in  bearing  several  years,  will 
produce  marvelous  results.  Well  prepared  bogs  will 
yield  good  crops  the  third  year,  and  after  this  nearly  a 
full  crop  every  year,  unless  insects  or  frosts  destroy 
them.  The  yield  of  a  good  bog  under  favorable  condi- 
tions has  often  been  between  one  hundred  and  two  hun- 
dred bushels  per  acre.  The  average  of  all  bogs  in  the 
Cape  Cod  section  in  a  single  season  has  been  one  hundred 
and  seventeen  bushels;  that  of  the  country  between 
eighty  and  ninety  bushels. 


172  SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 

HARVESTING 

This  crop  must  be  harvested  before  fall  frosts  unless 
water  facilities  are  such  that  the  bog  can  be  flooded 
at  ten  or  twelve  hours'  notice.  The  crop  is  gathered 
by  hand  picking  and  by  means  of  the  rake  or  scoop. 
With  the  latter  400  to  450  quarts  per  day  are  picked 
by  the  most  active  pickers,  while  hand  pickers  will 
hardly  pick  more  than  200  quarts  unless  the  crop  is 
large  and  thick. 

Storing  and  Marketing — The  cranberry  is  a  fruit 
that  keeps  well  in  an  airy,  cool,  but  not  too  dry  place, 
the  temperature  never  going  down  to  thirty-two  degrees. 


Fig.  90— The  Large  Bell  Cranberry 

For  home  use,  if  put  in  fruit  jars  and  covered  with 
cold  water,  the  fruit  will  keep  until  May  or  June  if 
placed  in  a  moderately  cool  cellar.  It  is  most  largely 
sold  in  barrels  of  about  100  quarts.  Prices  obtained 
range  from  $3.50  to  $15  per  barrel,  an  average  of  about 
$7.  Some  markets  demand  the  fruit  in  crates,  and  many 
dealers  buy  in  barrels  and  repack  in  crates  or  boxes. 

RENEWING     A     CRANBERRY     BOG 

After  ten  or  fifteen  years  of  fruiting  many  bogs 
begin  to  fail,  and  are  renewed  by  resurfacing,  or  with 


THE     CRANBERRY  173 

little  expense  by  again  covering  with  sand.  A  light 
covering  of  sand  every  five  years  would  probably  give 
satisfactory  results.  It  is  found  in  some  cases  that 
a  light  dressing  of  superphosphate  will  give  the  plants 
a  vigorous  start  and  greatly  improve  the  yield  and 
quality  of  the  fruit. 

INJURIOUS     INSECTS 

Two  insects  have  become  somewhat  of  a  menace  to 
the  cranberry  crop — the  "leaf  roller"  and  the  berry 
moth.  The  former  is  prevented  from  doing  serious 
damage  by  flowing  for  a  few  days  or  a  week  soon  after 
they  begin  to  work  seriously.  The  berry  moth  is  more 
or  less  destroyed  by  the  use  of  arsenate  of  lead  sprayed 
upon  the  plants  and  fruit  while  quite  small.  For 
further  particulars  as  to  controlling  insect  pests,  see 
bulletins  of  Massachusetts  and  New  Jersey  experiment 
stations. 

Many  varieties  of  cranberries  are  now  being  grown. 
They  may  be  divided  into  three  groups,  i.  e.,  the  Bell, 
Olive  and  Bugle  types.  Fixture  90  shows  the  large 
Bell  variety. 


XYI 

THE  BLUEBERRY  AND  HUCKLEBERRY 

(  (Vaccinium  Canadense) 
BLUEBERRY  •<  (Vaccinium   corymbosum) 
(.  (Vaccinium  vacillans) 

HUCKLEBERRY    ( Gaylussacia    resinosa) 

While  these  berries  are  found  in  our  markets  in 
considerable  quantities  in  almost  every  section  of  the 
country,  the  supply  comes  wholly  from  bushes  grown 
in  the  pastures,  fields  and  swamps.  Many  attempts  have 
been  made  to  cultivate  it  in  garden  and  field,  but  with 
poor  or  indifferent  success.  Like  most  plants  growing 
naturally  on  land  with  a  good  soil  cover,  they  become 
weakened  and  soon  fail  if  exposed  to  much  sun  and 
air  about  the  roots  and  lower  branches.  In  the  pas- 
tures and  meadows  the  ground  is  shaded  by  grass  and 
undergrowth,  and  the  stems  of  the  bushes  by  close 
growing  foliage  about  them,  and  to  insure  even  a  mod- 
erate growth  these  conditions  must  be  provided  in  the 
garden.  The  natural  soil  cover  of  the  meadows  may 
be  replaced  by  leaves,  old  hay  or  even  by  a  close  planting 
and  a  mulch  of  fine  soil,  and  if  the  soil  is  naturally  a 
little  moist  or  the  season  cool  and  moist,  a  fair  growth 
will  be  made.  An  acid  soil  seems  to  be  a  necessity  in 
growing  this  fruit. 

TRANSPLANTING 

Plants  that  will  come  up  with  a  bog  or  clump  of 
roots  should  be  selected,  and  only  those  producing  the 


THE  BLUEBERRY  AND  HUCKLEBERRY     175 

largest  berries  taken.  Cut  back  severely  and  set  close 
together  about  as  deep  as  they  stood  in  the  pasture, 
tramping  the  soil  firmly  a'jout  the  roots.  A  mulch 
should  be  placed  around  the  roots  and  if  very  dry  a  lib- 
eral amount  of  water  be  poured  into  the  holes  to  settle 
the  soil  about  the  roots  before  the  mulch  is  put  on. 
Additional  mulch  or  manure  should  be  placed  about  them 
when  it  becomes  thin.  Another  method  of  treatment 
which  is  more  generally  satisfactory  is  to  clear  a  blue- 
berry or  huckleberry  lot  of  everything  but  good,  strong 
bushes  of  these  fruits.  •  Divide  into  three  lots  and  early 
in  the  spring  spread  manure  or  fertilizer  among  them. 
Then  mow  the  tops  of  one  plot  close  to  the  ground.  The 
two  plots  not  cut  down  will  produce  a  large  crop  of  fruit 
if  the  season  is  favorable,  and  the  new  canes  on  the 
other  plot  will  make  a  strong  growth  that  for  the  next 
two  years  will  yield  very  large  and  fine  fruit.  The 
second  spring  plot  No.  2  is  cut  down,  and  No.  3  and 
Xo.  1  bear  fruit.  After  this  three  years'  rotation  two 
plots  of  bushes  will  be  producing  vigorous  canes  that 
will  yield  an  abundance  of  fine  fruit,  if,  in  addition  to 
cutting  back,  an  occasional  dressing  of  manure  or 
fertilizer  be  applied. 

Many  brush  pastures,  by  a  little  thinning  out  of 
"robber"  plants,  treated  in  the  above  manner,  may  be 
made  a  source  of  considerable  income.  Women  and 
children  can  generally  be  found  who  will  pick  the  ber- 
ries on  shares  "if  the  picking  is  good,"  and  the  fruit  be 
gathered  when  it  will  bring  the  best  prices. 


XVII 

SUB-TROPICAL  FRUITS 

THE    ORANGE 

THE   SOUR   ORANGE    (Citrus   aumntium) 

THE  SWEET   ORANGE    (Citrus  aurantium  dulcis) 

THE    MANDARIN    ORANGE    (Citrus   durantium    nolilis) 

THE   POMELO,  GRAPE   FRUIT,   ETC.    (Citrus   decumana) 

THE   HARDY   ORANGE    (Citrus    trifolidtd) 

THE    LEMON    (Citrus  limonum) 

Next  to  the  apple  the  orange  is  by  far  the  most 
important  fruit  in  the  United  States,  although  it  can 
be  grown  only  in  special  localities.  It  is  to  the  Southern 
sections  of  the  country  what  the  apple  is  to  the  Northern 
sections.  It  is  a  good  shipping  fruit,  even  better  than 
the  apple,  and  its  beautiful  color  and  delicious  flavor 
make  it  a  close  rival.  Orange  growers  are  generally 
very  enthusiastic  in  their  work,  and  well  they  should 
be,  for  the  beautiful  tree  with  its  bright  green  leaves 
and  wonderfully  fragrant  white  flowers,  followed  by  its 
golden  fruit,  makes  it  an  object  for  admiration,  and 
when  the  work  is  carried  on  in  a  systematic,  business- 
like way,  except  when  injured  by  frost,  orange  growing 
is  profitable. 

While  easily  grown,  the  trees  must  have  constant 
care  to  keep  them  growing  vigorously,  and  to  protect 
them  from  insect  pests,  and  in  some  sections  to  protect 
them  from  frosts. 


THE     ORANGE  177 

PLANTING     THE     ORCHARD 

Orchards  are  started  in  two  ways:  (1)  by  planting 
trees  already  budded  with  desirable  varieties,  and  (2) 
by  planting  seedlings  (stocks)  in  the  orchard  and  bud- 
ding them  after  one  or  two  years'  growth.  The  best 
stock  for  the  extreme  South  is  the  sour  orange,  and  for 
Northern  sections  the  hardy  orange  (C.  trifoliate).  In 
a  general  way  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  pruning  of 
the  tree  before  planting,  etc.,  are  the  same  as  for  the 
apple  or  peach.  In  planting  an  orange  orchard  or 
grove,  local  conditions  of  soil,  exposure  and  markets 
must  be  very  carefully  studied.  In  different  sections 
the  distance  varies  much,  according  to  the  variety  grown, 
the  method  of  pruning  and  richness  of  soil,  so  that  no 
rule  can  be  given.  Enough  room  should  be  given  for 
the  full  development  of  the  trees. 

Training  the  Trees — A  round,  low-headed,  compact 
tree  with  an  abundance  of  foliage  is  the  ideal  condition. 
If  possible  give  the  tree  a  slightly  conical  form  by 
keeping  the  leader  or  central  shoot  a  little  stronger 
than  the  lateral  branches.  In  other  words,  don't  let 
the  laterals  outgrow  the  leader.  The  low  head  has 
many  advantages.  All  the  work  of  trimming,  thinning, 
spraying,  harvesting  and  protecting  from  frosts  can 
be  more  cheaply  and  better  done  on  low  trees,  and 
less  fruit  will  be  blown  off  in  case  of  cyclones  or  heavy 
storms. 

Cultivation — As  with  other  orchard  fruits,  the  aim 
should  be  to  produce  a  vigorous  and  healthy  tree.  If 
the  soil  is  naturally  rich  and  drouth  resistant,  less  cul- 
tivation and  less  fertilizing  material  will  be  needed.  It* 
the  soil  is  very  thin,  even  with  a  large  application  of 
plant  food,  very  frequent  cultivation  must  be  prac- 
ticed. Where  the  supply  of  water  for  irrigation  ;-* 
abundant,  less  plant  food  and  U**  stirring  of  the  soil 


178          SUCCESSFUL  FKUIT  CULTURE 

will  be  needed,  but  very  few  good  crops  are  grown,  even 
under  these  conditions,  without  considerable  cultivation. 
A  very  cheap  source  of  organic  matter  (humus)  in  the 


Fig.  91— Orange  Tree  in  Tub 

soil  may  be  produced  by  sowing  cover  crops  of  clover, 
vetch  or  other  leguminous  crops  about  the  time  the 
trees  are  maturing  their  main  annual  growth.  If  there 


THE     ORANGE  179 

is  any  one  season  when  drouth  is  more  likely  to  occur 
than  another,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  cover  crop 
is  not  making  its  greatest  growth  at  this  time,  as 
with  the  great  loss  of  plant  food  and  moisture  in  this 
way  at  such  a  time  the  trees  are  likely  to  be  seriously 
injured. 

Protection  from  Frost — To  secure  fruit  and  trees 
from  injury1  by  frost,  provisions  must  be  made  for  their 
protection,  which  should  be  ready  at  all  times  for  use 
at  shortest  notice.  When  the  trees  are  grown  close  to 
the  ground  coarse  hay,  reeds,  brush  or  other  similar 
material  can  be  quickly  piled  up  around  the  trunks 
and  in  among  the  branches  at  but  little  expense.  Such 
material  could  no  doubt  be  obtained  near  at  hand  or 
be  grown  especially  for  this  purpose.  After  danger 
is  past  it  could  be  used  for  bedding  or  for  mulch. 
Folding  covers,  lined  with  paper,  could  be  employed 
over  small  trees,  which,  if  kept  stored  in  a  dry,  airy 
place,  would  last  a  lifetime,  and  often  in  a  single  night 
save  the  results  of  years  of  labor  and  much  invested 
capital.  Other  methods  of  protection  may  also  be  sug- 
gested, all  of  which  should  be  investigated  before 
adopting  any  of  them.  Figure  91  shows  a  sweet  Florida 
orange  tree  grown  in  a  tub,  by  Mr.  E.  H.  Wrenn,  Mt. 
Airy,  N".  C.  It  is  eight  and  one-half  feet  high  and  its 
top  ten  feet  in  diameter.  In  winter  it  is  kept  in  a 
brick  store,  heated  with  a  stove,  and  in  summer  out  of 
doors.  It  bore  over  200  oranges  the  past  season. 

VARIETIES 

As  with  all  other  kinds  of  fruit,  the  varieties 
of  oranges  are  very  numerous,  and  new  and  im- 
proved kinds  are  constantly  coming  to  notice.  The 
work  being  done  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington  in  searching  every  orange  growing  section 


180         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

of  the  world  for  choice  varieties  to  be  tested  in  this 
country  will  no  doubt  lead  to  a  rapid  improvement,  and 
each  grower  must  follow  this  investigation  and  be 
ready  to  adopt  those  that  prove  the  best.  Among  the 
varieties  now  largely  grown  may  be  mentioned  Boone's 
Early,  Satsuma,  Homosassa,  Jaffa,  Maltese  Blond,  Pine- 
apple, Washington  Navel,  etc. 

POMELO   (GRAPE  FRUIT) 

This  fruit  is  practically  a  large  orange  with  a  thick 
skin  and  an  acid,  slightly  bitter  pulp.  It  requires  nearly 
the  same  treatment  as  the  orange.  A  few  varieties  to 
be  recommended  are  Duncan,  Eoyal,  Triumph,  etc. 

KUMQUAT    (GOLD   ORANGE) 

A  most  beautiful  ornamental  tree  producing  very 
small  fruit  in  immense  numbers.  The  rind  as  well  as 
the  pulp  is  edible,  the  fruit  being  especially  valuable 
for  preserving  in  the  whole  state.  The  great  beauty  of 
the  trees,  their  great  productiveness,  and  the  quality  of- 
the  fruit,  especially  when  preserved,  should  make  this 
fruit  very  popular  in  the  near  future. 

THE   FIG 

(Ficus   carica) 

While  almost  a  tropical  fruit,  the  fig,  by  careful 
manipulation  and  winter  covering,  may  be  made  to  bear 
fruit  as  far  north  as  New  England.  In  the  South  it 
must  be  grown  rather  slowly  after  it  reaches  fruiting 
age,  as  a  rapid  growth  tends  to  the  formation  of  leaf 
buds  rather  than  fruit  buds.  The  soil  should  not  be 
cultivated  deeply,  as  the  roots  run  near  the  surface. 


THE      PERSIMMON1 


181 


Tho  strong  new  shoots  that  outgrow  their  neighbors 
should  be  pinched  back  when  they  have  reached  the 
desired  length.  This  is  much  better  than  to  allow  long 
shoots  to  grow  without  checking  and  finally  cutting  off 
large  shoots  at  the  end  of  the  season. 

At  the  North  small  trees  may  be  grown  in  tubs  or 
boxes,  putting  them  in  a  warm,  sunny  place  in  sum- 
mer, and  storing  in  a  dry,  warm  cellar  or  pit  during  the 
winter.  They  are 
sometimes  even 
grown  in  the 
garden  if  planted 
in  a  warm,  dry 
soil  in  the  sum- 
mer, and  should 
be  covered  deeply 
in  the  winter 
with  soil  so  that 
they  will  not 
freeze,  but  the  tub 
or  box  system  is 
much  the  best. 
Among  the  best 
varieties  are  the 

Black  Ischia,  Brunswick  and  White  Adriatic.  A  bear- 
ing branch  of  the  fig  tree  is  seen  in  Figure  92. 

THE    PERSIMMON 

AMERICAN  (Diospyros  Virginiana) 
JAPANESE    (Diospyros  Kaki) 

This  fruit,  a  native  of  the  Middle  and  Southern 
States,  is  one  that  should  be  given  more  attention.  When 
ripe  the  fruit  is  beautiful,  of  good  quality,  and  is  pro- 
duced in  large  quantities.  Few  trees  are  planted  in 
orchards,  though  some  of  the  new  varieties  would  war- 


Fig.  92-Bearing  Branch  of  the  Fiz  Tree 


182          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

rant  their  extensive  cultivation.  When  grown  in  a 
too  rich  soil  the  trees  are  often  destroyed  by  cold,  there- 
fore at  the  North  it  is  hest  to  plant  in  a  rather  light  soil. 
The  fruit  of  most  varieties  is  not  edible  until  the  decay- 
ing process  almost  sets  in,  when  they  become  very 
delicious.  The  Japanese  persimmons  are  much  supe- 
rior in  size  and  quality,  and  are  becoming  of  some  com- 
mercial importance  in  the  South.  They  are  not  hardy 
north  of  Washington.  It  is  grafted  upon  the  native 
stock,  which  may  tend  to  make  it  more  hardy.  An  effort 
is  being  made  to  produce  new  varieties  of  the  native 
species,  as  well  as  from  crosses  with  the  Japanese,  and 
we  look  for  a  great  improvement  in  this  fruit.  Among 
the  best  varieties  now  in  cultivation  are  Hyakume, 
Taber's  No,  129,  Yeddo,  etc.,  etc. 

The  cultivation  required  for  success  is  not  unlike 
that  to  be  given  to  the  Japanese  plum  or  peach,  though 
it  is  not  as  easily  transplanted  as  either  of  the  above. 

THE    LOQUAT 

(Eriolotrya    Japonica) 

.  The  Japanese  medlar  or  Japanese  plum,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  is  a  delicious  fruit  about  the  size  of 
the  Eeine  Claude  plum,  but  of  a  brighter  color.  The 
fruit  ripens  in  March  and  April,  and  while  the  trees 
are  hardy  as  far  north  as  the  Middle  South,  its  fruit 
matures  only  as  far  north  as  the  middle  of  Florida. 
The  leaves  are  large,  dark  green  above,  with  a  whitish 
down  upon  the  under  side,  making  it  a  decidedly  orna- 
mental tree.  In  Southern  Florida  it  is  being  somewhat 
extensively  planted,  and  the  fruit  often  finds  its  way 
into  nearby  markets,  but  is  little  seen  in  the  Northern 
markets.  Besides  its  being  used  in  a  fresh  state,  eaten 
from  the  hand,  it  is  preserved,  having  something  of 
the  flavor  of  sweet  cherries. 


XVIII 

THE  PROPAGATION  OF  FRUIT  TREES 
AND  PLANTS 

While  it  may  not  generally  be  advisable  for  the 
fruit  grower  to  attempt  to  grow  trees  for  his  own 
planting,  in  many  cases  it  may  be  best  and  profitable 
to  do  so,  and  it  certainly  will  be  of  great  advantage  to 
all  to  know  how  they  are  propagated,  to  enable  them 
to  judge  of  the  value  of  the  trees  they  buy,  and  if  one 
can  have  well  grown  ones  on  his  own  place,  ready  to 
transplant  at  just  the  right  time,  and  in  a  perfectly 
fresh  condition,  they  will  be  much  more  sure  to  do  well 
than  the  average  nursery  trees. 

In  this  chapter  I  shall  attempt  to  give  only  the 
practice  of  the  most  reliable  nurseries,  so  illustrated 
that  with  a  little  practice  the  intelligent  and  energetic 
man  may  grow  good  trees  for  his  own  planting!  and 
perhaps  supply  some  to  his  neighbors.  The  boys  and 
girls  should  become  interested  in  this  work,  in  which 
they  might  soon  become  skillful,  and  perhaps  lay  the 
foundation  for  the  establishment  of  the  nursery  business 
in  sections  not  now  supplied  with  home  grown  trees. 

THE    PROPAGATION    OP    THE    APPLE 

None  of  the  varieties  of  the  apple  reproduce  the 
same  kind  from  seed.  Thus  there  has  never  been  but 
one  Baldwin  apple  tree  grown  from  seed;  all  of  the 
trees  of  this  variety,  except  the  first  one,  that  came 
from  seed,  have  been  grown  by  inserting  buds  or  cions 


184         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

from  this  tree,  or  others  like  it,  into  other  seedling 
stocks.  Tho  stocks  most  in  use  for  this  purpose  are 
those  imported  from  France  or  other  European  coun- 
tries, where  the  people  have  gained  great  skill,  and 
where  the  price  of  labor  is  much  less  than  in  this 
country,  though  a  few  of  our  nurserymen  grow  good 
native  stocks,  either  from  imported  seed  or  that  from 
strong  natural  or  unbudded  trees. 

If  only  a  small  number  of  seedlings  are  needed,  the 
seed  can  be  obtained  from  strong  trees  of  natural  fruit, 
separating  it  from  the  pulp  or  planting  the  whole  apples, 
first  cutting  them  into  quarters  and  planting  in  the  fall 
before  the  ground  freezes.  If  the  seed  is  cleaned  it  may 
be  planted  in  the  fall,  where  the  mice  or  squirrels  will 
not  destroy  it,  or  it  may  be  kept  over  in  dry  sand  or  fine 
dry  loamy  soil  buried  in  the  ground  where  there  is  no 
standing  water,  care  being  taken  that  the  sand  does  not 
become  wet.  In  the  spring  the  seed  should  be  sown 
as  soon  as  the  soil  will  work  fine  and  mellow. 

The  Seedbed — Any  rather  moist,  rich  loam  will 
grow  good  apple  seedlings  if  it  is  properly  prepared.  It 
should  be  deeply  worked  with  the  plow  or  spade  and 
well  enriched  with  partly  decomposed  stable  manure,  or 
with  fine  ground  bone  and  potash  at  the  rate  of  1500 
pounds  of  the  former  to  500  pounds  of  the  latter  per 
acre.  After  the  seedbed  has  been  thoroughly  fitted  the 
seed  should  be  sown  in  drills  fifteen  inches  apart  if  to 
be  cultivated  by  hand,  or  thirty  inches  if  it  is  to  be 
done  by  the  horse,  and  be  covered  about  one-half  inch 
deep.  After  the  seedlings  are  an  inch  or  two  high  they 
should  be  thinned  to  about  two  inches  apart,  weeding 
out  all  weak  or  defective  seedlings,  and  during  the  season 
cultivate  thoroughly  at  least  once  a  week.  If  in  July 
the  seedlings  are  not  making  the  growth  they  ought, 
some  quick  acting  fertilizer  should  be  scattered  along 
the  row  and  cultivated  in. 


PROPAGATION    OF    TREES    AND    PLANTS 


183 


Digging  the  Seedlings — In  the  fall,  before  the 
ground  freezes,  the  seedlings,  which  should  have  made 
a  growth  of  from  one  to  two  feet,  must  be  carefully  dug 
and  heeled-in,  i.  e.,  packed  in  trenches  of  light  soil, 
where  there  will  be  no  standing  water,  with  the  soil 
carefully  worked  in  among  the  roots  and  nearly  all  of 
the  top  covered  with  soil,  and  as  very  cold  weather  comes 
on  a  covering  of  straw 
or  hay  be  put  on  to 
keep  the  ground  from 
deep  freezing.  If  the 
seedlings  are  to  be 
root  grafted,  they  are 
washed  after  digging 
and  packed  in  sphag- 
num moss  or  sawdust 
and  put  into  a  very 
cool  cellar. 

Root  Grafting — 
Much  has  been  said 
pro  and  con  as  to  the 
value  of  the  root- 
grafted  apple  tree  as 
compared  with  the 
budded  tree,  and  it 
may  be  said  that  both 
are  good  when  the 
work  is  properly  done, 
and  the  writer  believes  that  a  root  graft,  skillfully  made 
in  December  or  January,  and  carefully  stored  in  a  cool 
cellar  in  moist  sand  or  light  soil  until  the  last  of  April 
and  then  planted  in  a  rich  soil,  will  make  as  good  a 
tree  as  most  budded  stocks,  but,  for  the  amateur, 
budding  will  give  the  best  results. 

The  root  graft  is  made  by  taking  the  seedling  and 
first  trimming  off  the  lateral  roots  and  the  end  of  the 


Fig.  93        Fig.  94         Fig.  95 
Root  drafting 


186          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

main  root  to  about  six  to  eight  inches  long.  A  cut  is 
then  made  just  below  the  collar  about  an  inch  long, 
as  seen  in  Figure  93.  A  tongue  is  then  cut  at  A  B ;  the 
cion,  Figure  94,  a  piece  of  the  last  season's  growth  of  the 
variety  desired,  is  then  taken,  and  a  similar  cut  is 
made  at  A  B,  the  two  being  pressed  together  with  the 
cambium  layers  of  both  stock  and  cion  in  as  close 
contact  as  is  possible,  as  seen  in  Figure  95.  The  graft  is 
then  tied  firmly  and  evenly  with  waxed  string,  waxed 
cloth  or  raffia  fiber.  The  success  of  the  work  depends 
upon  the  smoothness  of  the  cut,  the  perfection  of  the 
union  of  the  cambium  layers,  and  close  and  firm  tying. 
To  shut  out  the  air  and  moisture  from  the  grafted  sur- 
face and  insure  a  more  complete  union,  it  is  best  to 
cover  the  cut  with  grafting  wax  or  with  waxed  cloth  after 
tying.  After  the  grafts  have  been  made  they  should 
be  packed  in  boxes  in  moist  sand  or  fine  sandy  soil, 
pressing  the  packing  very  firmly  about  the  grafted 
parts.  After  the  box  is  filled  it  is  placed  in  an  upright 
position,  that  any  growth  that  may  take  place  will 
be  toward  the  union  of  the  graft.  The  grafts  should 
be  planted  as  soon  in  the  spring  as  the  soil  will  work 
up  light  and  mellow,  and  they  are  best  set  with  a 
dibber  or  spade,  the  top  bud  being  set  at  the  level  of 
the  grQund. 

In  planting  with  the  spade  the  blade  is  inserted 
to  its  full  depth,  worked  back  and  forth  until  the 
desired  space  is  made,  when  a  graft  is  placed  at  each  end 
of  the  opening  made,  and  one  in  the  middle,  thus  setting 
them  about  four  inches  apart,  with  the  top  bud  just  at 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  spade  is  then  again  inserted 
a  few  inches  outside  of  this  opening  and  the  soil  pressed 
very  firmly  against  the  grafts.  The  soil  should  then 
be  trodden  firmly  on  both  sides.  In  taking  the  root 
grafts  from  the  boxes  it  is  best  to  keep  them  in  a  pail 
of  water  until  they  are  planted. 


PROPAGATION  OF  TREES  AND  PLANTS      187 

Budding — For  propagation  by  budding,  the  seed- 
lings that  have  been  heeled-in  the  previous  fall  are 
taken  up  as  soon  as  the  land  will  work  up  mellow  in 
the  spring,  the  ends  and  lateral  roots  trimmed  as  for 
root  grafting,  and  planted  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
root  grafts,  except  that  they  are  set  only  as  deep  as 
they  stood  in  the  seedbed.  The  seedling  and  the  root 
graft  are  now  planted  in  the  nursery  and  in  a  few 
days  after  planting  the  surface  of  the  soil  must  be  made 
fine  and  mellow  and  be  kept  in  this  condition  through- 
out the  growing  season.  To  insure 
success  in  budding,  the  stocks  must 
be  made  to  grow  vigorously  and  be 
kept  free  from  insects  and  fungous 
pests  by  spraying  with  kerosene  and 
the  bordeaux  mixture. 

Budding  is  best  done  when  the 
seedlings  are  approaching  maturity, 
ranging  from  the  first  of  August 
to  September  15  in  different  parts 
of  the  country,  but  it  must  be  done 
when  the  bark  will  peel  readily. 
The  buds  used  shctuld  be  those  from 
vigorous  fruiting  trees  that  produce  Fig  96_Bud  stlck 
the  type  of  fruit  desired.  Before  the 
work  of  budding  begins,  a  sufficient  number  of  bud  sticks 
(Figure  9G)  should  be  prepared,  as  well  as  an  abundance 
of  tying  material  (raffia  fiber)  cut  to  the  proper  lengths, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  stocks  to  be  budded.  The 
bud  sticks  and  tying  material  are  carried  in  a  moistened 
wrapper  slung  over  the  left  shoulder,  so  as  to  be  readily 
reached  by  the  right  hand.  The  stocks  should  then  be 
trimmed  for  five  or  six  inches  above  the  ground  of  all 
shoots  and  leaves,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  work 
of  budding.  A  sharp  shoe  knife  with  a  thin  blade  and 
a  rounded  point  is  generally  used,  though  the  budding 


188 


SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 


knives    (Figure   97)    sold  by  dealers   in  horticultural 
supplies  are  preferable. 

The  process  of  budding  consists  in  first  making 
a  cross  cut,  as  shown  in  Figure  98,  then  turning  the 
knife  and  starting  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  below, 
making  an  upward  cut  to  the  cross  cut,  where  by  a  quick 
turn  of  the  hand  the  bark  on  both  sides  of  the  cut  is 
raised,  as  shown  in  Figure  99.  A  bud  stick  is  then  taken, 
and,  placing  the  knife  about  half  an  inch  below  the 
bud,  a  cut  is  made  through  the  bark  upward,  taking  a 
little  of  the  wood  with  the  bud.  The  bud  is  then 
held  by  the  stalk  of  the  leaf  that  has  been  left  for 


Fig.  97— Budding  Knives 

the  purpose,  and  the  point  inserted  under  the  raised 
bark  and  pressed  down  until  it  is  well  in  place,  as  seen 
in  Figure  100.  If  the  bark  does  not  peel  quite  readily 
enough  the  rounded  point  of  the  knife  is  pushed  under 
the  raised  points  and  run  downward,  raising  it  so  that 
the  b.ud  will  be  properly  set,  but  buds  will  not  be  as 
sure  to  grow  as  if  the  bark  peels  with  fhe  pressure  of 
the  bud  as  it  is  forced  down  in  place.  After  being 
inserted  the  bud  must  be  firmly  and  evenly  tied  with 
some  soft  and  flat  tying  material  or  soft  string,  as  seen 
in  Figure  101.  The  material  most  in  use  is  raffia  fiber, 
so  commonly  employed  for  tying  asparagus  and  other 
vegetables. 


PROPAGATION    OF    TREES    AND    PLANTS 


189 


The  conditions  of  success  are:  (1)  a  vigorous  grow- 
ing stock;  (2)  a  well  matured  bud;  (3)  a  sharp,  thin- 
bladed  knife;  (4)  a  clean,  smooth  cut;  (5)  little 
exposure  to  the  air  and  a  good  fit  under  the  bark;  (6) 
firm  and  even  binding.  After  the  buds  have  been  in- 
serted a  week  or  two  the  stocks  should  be  examined, 
and  if  the  bands  are  cutting  into  them,  the  result  of 
rapid  growth,  they  should  be  loosened  a  little,  or  if  the 


R*.  98 


Fljt.  99 


Fly.  100 


101 


bud  has  united  sufficiently  a  cut  may  be  made  on  the 
side  opposite  the  bud,  when  the  band  will  be  gradually 
loosened  by  the  continued  growth  of  the  stock. 

The  buds  require  no  further  care  until  the  following 
spring,  when  the  stock  is  cut  off  just  above  the  inserted 
bud,  and  we  have  practically  the  same  condition  as  in 
the  root  graft  just  planted,  except  that,  in  the  latter, 
one  year's  growth  of  roots  has  been  made  in  the  nursery, 
while  in  the  former  it  has  been  just  transplanted. 

Nursery  Treatment — Taking  the  budded  seedling 
and  the  newly  transplanted  root  graft,  we  will  give  the 
treatment  required  to  produce  a  first-class  tree  for 


190 


SUCCESSFUL  FKUIT  CULTURE 


orchard  planting.  The  conditions  of  success  are:  (1) 
a  rich  soil  and  frequent  and  thorough  cultivation;  (2) 
allow  only  one  bud  to  grow,  i.  e.,  the  bud  inserted  into 
the  stock  in  budding  and  the  top  bud  of  the  cion  on 
the  root  graft;  (3)  allow  only  one  shoot  to  grow  (Figure 
102),  a  clean,  straight  growth  being  necessary  to  a 
satisfactory  tree.  The  young  trees  must  be  protected 
from  injury  by  insects  and  fungous  diseases  as  in  the 

orchard,   and   the 
/  same  methods  are 

'  to  be  employed. 

At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  second 
year,  and  before 
the  growth  begins, 
the  one-y  e  a  r-old 
shoot  should  be 
cut  back  to  the 
hight  at  which  it 
is  desired  to  have 
the  top  formed. 
(Figure  103.) 
,This  hight  may  be 
from  two  to  four 
feet,  according  to 
the  method  of  training  to  be  followed  in  the  growth  of 
the  young  tree,  those  not  having  made  over  two  or 
three  feet  being  cut  back  to  the  ground  for  a  new  start. 
Buds  of  those  trees  that  have  been  topped  at  from  two  to 
four  feet  high  will  start  all  along  from  the  top  of  the 
ground  in  most  cases  (Figure  102a),  but  only  a  few  at 
the  top  are  generally  allowed  to  grow,  the  others  either 
being  rubbed  off  as  soon  as  well  started,  or  being  allowed 
to  grow  an  inch  or  two  and  then  the  ends  pinched  to 
check  their  growth,  thus  forcing  all  development  into 
the  branches  desired  for  the  head.  These  branches 


Fig.  102  Fljj.  103 

Nursery  Treatment  of  Young  Trees 


PBOPAGATION    OF    TREES    AND    PLANTS  101 

pinched  are  to  be  finally  cut  off  close  to  the  trunk.  *  The 
last  method  has  the  advantage  of  making  a  more  stocky 
tree,  though  not  quite  so  smooth  and  clean. 

At  the  end  of  the  second  year  apple  trees,  either 
root  grafts  or  budded  stock,  should  stand  from  five  to 
seven  feet  high,  and  be  from  three-fourths  to  one  inch 
in  diameter  at  the  ground,  with  four  or  five  strong 
shoots  near  the  top  and  evenly  placed  on  all  sides  of 
the  trunk.  Such  trees,  i.  e.,  two-year  trees,  are  better 
than  those  older  or  younger  for  general  planting,  and 
should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  longer  in  the  nursery. 

Digging  Trees  from  the  Nursery — The  value  of 
nursery  trees  to  the  purchaser  largely  depends  upon  how 
many  of  the  roots  are  secured  in  digging  them  from 
the  ground,  and  how  long  they  are  exposed  to  the  air 
before  they  are  planted  in  the  soil  again.  The  best 
way  to  get  them  from  the  ground  is  to  first  dig  the 
soil  away  from  the  tree  down  to  the  roots,  which  will 
be,  in  well  cultivated  land,  about  six  inches.  Then  with 
sharp  spades  cut  a  circle  around  the  tree  at  from  one 
to  two  feet,  according  to  the  size  of  the  tree,  severing 
all  roots  that  go  outside  of  that  limit.  With  two  strong 
spades,  one  on  each  side,  and  a  third  man  to  pull,  the 
tree  is  then  lifted  out  with  the  largest  amount  of  roots 
that  it  is  possible  to  secure.  If  a  large  number  of  trees 
is  to  be  dug  and  the  help  is  limited,  all  of  those 
of  one  variety  are  first  loosened  and  then,  going  over 
the  row  again,  all  are  taken  quickly  from  the  ground 
and  the  roots  covered,  or  each  kind  may  be  planted  before 
another  kind  is  dug.  Trees  should  never  be  kept  out  of 
the  ground  any  longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  If 
trees  are  to  be  transported  a  long  distance,  the  roots 
should  be  protected  from  drying  by  the  process  known 
as  "puddling,"  which  consists  in  dipping  them  in  a 
thick  mixture  of  clay  and  water,  the  covering  thus  formed 
making  .an  almost  air-tight  covering  over  the  roots. 


192          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

Trees  from  Home  vs.  Distant  Nurseries — The  ques- 
tion as  to  whether  it  is  best  to  grow  our  own  trees,  to 
purchase  them  from  nurseries  near  home,  or  to  send  to 
sections  a  long  distance  away  where  they  have  peculiar 
advantages  of  soil  or  special  skill  that  comes  from  long 
practice  which  enables  them  to  grow  better  trees  and 
at  a  lower  price,  is  one  that  needs  careful  consideration. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  value  of  two  trees 
equally  well  grown,  the  one  from  a  nursery  within  a 
short  distance  of  the  place  of  planting,  where  they  may 
be  dug  and  planted  the  same  day,  and  one  grown  hun- 
dreds of  miles  away.  The  one  grown  in  the  home 
nursery  will  be,  beyond  question,  the  best  to  plant. 

It  is  the  practice  of  local  nurseries  to  buy  young 
stock  of  parties  who  are  very  skillful,  and  are  growing 
in  large  quantities,  plant  them  in  their  own  nurseries 
for  a  year  or  two,  and  then  sell  to  the  local  trade.  These 
trees  are,  as  a  rule,  more  sure  to  grow  than  trees  planted 
at  first  hand,  but  are  more  expensive.  The  question  as 
to  where  to  obtain  the  best  trees  for  planting  is  an. 
important  one,  and  can  only  be  settled  by  a  very  careful 
consideration  of  all  the  surrounding  conditions,  but  one 
thing  must  be  impressed  on  the  planter — that  it  does 
not  pay  to  buy  poor  stock  at  any  price. 

PROPAGATION    OF    THE    PEAR 

The  pear  is  propagated  in  practically  the  same 
way  as  the  apple,  but  requires  more  care  in  the  selection 
of  the  seed,  in  the  growth  of  the  seedlings  and  in  their 
care  in  the  nursery.  The  stocks  most  in  use  by  the 
nurserymen  are  imported,  and  called  French  stocks, 
but  by  a  careful  selection  of  seed  and  an  especially  good 
soil,  good  native  seedling  stocks  may  be  grown. 

The  varieties  of  the  pear  are  generally  increased 
by  budding  (see  page  189).  Some  nurserymen,  how- 


PROPAGATION    OF    TREES    AND    PLANTS  193 

ever,  use  the  root  graft,  though  this  method  cannot  be 
recommended  for  general  use. 

Nursery  Treatment — The  best  soil  for  the  growth 
of  good  trees  in  the  nursery  is  a  deep,  moist  loam,  per- 
haps a  little  clayey,  but  thoroughly  underdrained.  The 
seedlings  are  cared  for  and  planted  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  apple,  but  more  attention  must  be  given  to  them 
that  they  do  not  cease  growing  from  the  time  planted 
until  they  are  budded,  for,  if  from  want  of  plant  food 
or  moisture  they  are  checked  in  growth,  the  leaf  blight 
may  attack  them,  the  leaves  fall,  and  budding  cannot 
be  done.  If  it  is  found  at  any  time  in  July  that  growth 
is  weak,  some  quick  acting  fertilizer  should  be  scattered 
in  a  furrow  close  up  to  the  roots  and  be  cultivated  in. 
Frequent  cultivation  must  be  kept  up  from  the  time  the 
seedlings  are  set  out  until  budding  is  completed — once 
a  week  is  not  too  often — and  in  case  of  drouth  more 
frequent  working  of  the  soil  will  be  advisable.  The  leaf 
blight  fungus,  described  in  Chapter  XXI,  is  more  likely 
to  attack  pear  seedlings  in  hot,  moist  weather,  in  low 
land,  than  upon  that  in  full  exposure  to  air  and  sunlight. 
The  preventive,  other  than  that  mentioned,  is  spraying 
with  the  bordeaux  as  used  in  the  orchard. 

The  budding  of  the  pear  seedlings,  cutting  off  of 
the  stock  and  the  forming  of  the  head  is  the  same  as 
to  time  and  method  as  for  the  apple,  but  it  generally 
requires  one  year  longer  to  grow  a  first-class  pear  tree 
than  for  the  apple. 

Top-working — Some  varieties  produce  a  weak  stock 
or  trunk,  and  to  make  good,  upright,  clean  trees,  must 
be  "top-worked."  This  consists  in  budding  in  summer, 
or  splice  or  tongue  grafting  in  spring,  on  some  strong 
growing  stock  like  Clapp  or  Flemish  Beauty.  In  this 
way  a  stout  trunk  is  obtained  much  earlier  than  rm 
be  produced  on  its  own  stock.  Old  treos  of  unprofitable 
varieties  may  be  grafted  over  as  described  for  the  apple. 


194          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 
PROPAGATION  OF  THE  PEACH 

Peach  trees  for  orchard  planting  are  more  easily 
grown  than  those  of  any  other  fruit.  The  soil  best 
suited  to  the  production  of  first-class  trees  is  a  medium 
deep  loam,  that  will  not  be  subject  to  drouth,  and  fully 
exposed  to  a  good  circulation  of  air.  Much  care  must 
be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  the  seed,  that  coming 
from  vigorous,  healthy  trees  being  the  best.  Much  of 
the  seed  used  is  sold  as  coming  from  Tennessee,  North 
Carolina,  etc.,  where  it  is  claimed  that  the  disease  known 
as  the  "yellows"  does  not  exist.  It  is  undoubtedly  true 
that  this  disease  is  less  prevalent  in  the  above-mentioned 
sections,  but  it  is  thought  that  it  may  be  found  there, 
and  as  the  "natural"  fruit  often  is  less  vigorous  than 
many  of  the  budded  sorts,  it  would  seem  best  to  use 
seed  from  the  most  hardy,  healthy  and  vigorous  varie- 
ties, whether  budded  or  not.  The  seed  should  be  obtained 
as  early  in  the  fall  as  is  possible,  and  be  "bedded,"  i.  e., 
mixed  with  soil  and  exposed  to  the  frost  .so  that  it  will 
germinate  more  readily  in  the  spring. 

Bedding  the  seeds  consists  in  selecting  a  rather 
moist  soil  of  sandy  loam,  where  there  will  be  no  danger 
of  standing  water,  and  making  a  pit  from  six  to  ten 
inches  deep,  and  of  the  size  required  for  the  amount 
of  seed  to  be  used.  In  the  bottom  of  this  bed  a  layer 
of  seeds  two  or  three  deep  is  placed,  then  a  layer  of 
soil  of  the  same  depth,  treading  it  firmly,  then  another 
layer  of  seeds,  and  so  on  until  the  bed  is  filled  a  little 
above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  soil.  Here  the  seeds 
remain  exposed  to  the  action  of  moisture  and  frost  until 
they  begin  to  sprout  in  May,  when  they  are  thrown 
upon  a  wire  screen,  and  the  shells  will  separate  from 
the  kernel  if  the  frosting  has  been  a  success.  If  any 
seeds  fail  to  sprout  they  must  be  carefully  cracked  with 
a  light  hammer.  As  the  kernels  are  separated  from 


PROPAGATION    OF    TREES    AND    PLANTS  195 

the  shells  they  should  be  kept  covered  with  moist  sand 
or  soil  until  ready  for  planting. 

They  are  planted  in  rows  from  four  to  five  feet 
apart  and  about  two  inches  in  the  row,  covering  with 
fine  soil  from  one  to  two  inches  deep,  according  to  the 
character  of  the  soil.  Under  proper  conditions  of  cul- 
tivation and  in  good  soil  the  seedlings  should  be  from 
eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  high  by  the  last  of 
August,  when  they  are  to  be  budded.  If  larger  than 
this  they  are  more  difficult  to  bud,  and  will  make  a  tree 
the  following  season  too  large  for  the  best  results  in 
planting  in  the  orchard.  The  peach  is  the  most  easily 
budded  of  any  of  the  fruit  trees,  but  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  put  in  fruit  buds.  Buds  should  be  taken  from 
the  best  and  most  fruitful  trees  and  not  from  the  nursery 
rows,  though  the  latter  will  be  more  certain  to  grow, 
and  fewer  blossom  buds  be  obtained. 

The  process  of  budding  is  the  same  as  for  the  apple. 
As  the  peach  seedlings  grow  very  rapidly  about  the 
time  of  budding,  a  closer  watch  must  be  kept  that  the 
bands  do  not  cut  into  the  stocks  so  as  to  cause  them 
to  break  off  in  the  wind.  The  stocks  are  cut  off,  as  seen 
in  Figure  43,  the  following  spring,  and  the  buds  start 
into  rapid  growth,  requiring  early  attention  that  the 
inserted  bud  is  not  injured  by  other  buds  that  start 
about  it.  The  care  required  the  first  season  is  to  see 
that  only  one  leader  grows,  but  all  laterals  are  allowed 
to  grow,  and  at  the  end  of  the  first  year's  growth  the 
tree  is  ready  for  planting  in  the  orchard.  Peach  trees 
are  graded  according  to  size  into  No.  1  and  No.  2,  or 
according  to  hight,  as  five  to  seven  feet,  three  and  one- 
half  to  five  feet,  and  three  to  four  and  one-half  feet. 
The  trees  most  planted  are  those  of  medium  or  second 
sizes,  for  the  reason  that  these  have  more  dormant  buds 
on  the  main  stem  than  the  larger  trees,  and  conse- 
quently more  stocky  heads  can  be  formed  from  them. 


196          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 
PROPAGATION  OF  THE  PLUM 

Varieties  of  plums  are  propagated  by  budding  on 
several  kinds  of  stocks,  the  most  in  use  being  the  French 
or  Myrobalan,  strong  growing  varieties  of  the  native 
or  American  plum,  and  the  peach  stock.  For  the  Euro- 
pean varieties  the  Myrobalan  is  most  largely  used,  though 
the  use  of  the  American  stock  is  increasing.  The  Jap- 
anese plums  are  grown  on  both  the  Myrobalan  and 
the  peach  stock,  the  former  doing  the  best  when  to  be 
planted  on  heavy  soil  and  the  latter  when  to  be  set 
on  rather  light  soil.  The  nursery  treatment  is  prac- 
tically the  same  as  in  the  growth  of  the  apple,  and  the 
amateur  finds  no  great  difficulty  in  growing  good  trees. 
Some  growers  are  using  peach  roots  on  which  to  graft 
the  Japanese  and  some  American  varieties,  the  claim 
being  that  when  worked  in  this  way,  and  planted  deeply, 
roots  will  soon  grow  from  the  cion  and  thus  the  trees  are 
on  their  own  roots  in  a  short  time.  The  Japanese  plums 
grown  on  peach  stocks  are  generally  large  enough  for 
planting  at  one  year-  from  the  bud. 

PROPAGATION    OF    THE    APRICOT    AND    NECTARINE 

These  two  fruits  are  propagated  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  peach,  being  budded  on  the  peach  stock. 

PROPAGATION     OF     THE     CHERRY 

Like  the  plum,  the  varieties  of  the  cherry  are  prop- 
agated on  imported  stocks.  Two  kinds  are  used,  the 
Mahaleb  and  the  Mazzard,  the  latter  being  most  largely 
used  and  most  valuable.  The  soil  for  the  best  results 
is  a  light,  rather  rich  loam,  kept  well  cultivated,  by 
which  means  the  seedlings  are  brought  into  good  condi- 
tion for  budding  the  last  of  August.  If  growing  very 
rapidly  at  the  time  the  buds  are  inserted,  it  is  often 
the  practice  to  head  back  the  seedlings  to  check  their 


PROPAGATION    OF    TREES    AND    PLANTS 


197 


growth,  and  thus  cause  a  more  perfect  union  of  the 
bud  with  the  stock.  After  the  stock  is  cut  off  in  the 
spring,  the  bud  grows  very  rapidly,  and  the  trees  are 
often  large  enough  for  transplanting  to  the  orchard 
at  one  year  from  the  bud. 

PKOPAGATION     OF     THE     QUINCE 

The  quince  is  propagated  by  cuttings,  by  layers,  by 
stools  and  by  root  grafts,  but  as  the  two  former  methods 
are  rather  difficult,  the  last  two  are  the  ones  most  used. 

Root  Graft— For 
this  purpose  small 
pieces  of  apple  roots  are 
used;  the  trimmings  of 
the  seedlings  are  taken 
and  cut  into  lengths  of 
three  or  four  inches, 
each  one  to  be  grafted 
on  a  cion  six  to  eight 
inches  long,  of  the  de- 
sired variety,  and  are 
then  planted  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  pig.  104-Quince  stool 

apple    root    grafts    de- 
scribed on  Page  186.     The  apple  root  supplies  moisture 
and  a  little  food  material  until  roots  are  formed  on  the 
cion,  when  it  fails  to  grow  more,  and  we  have  the  quince 
on  its  own  root. 

Where  only  a  few  trees  are  desired  they  may  be 
grown  by  what  is  called  the  "stool"  method.  This  con- 
sists in  first  cutting  a  small,  young  tree  down  to  within 
four  or  five  inches  of  the  ground,  and-  allowing  it  to 
throw  up  new  shoots  that  grow  one  season,  as  seen  in 
Figure  104.  At  the  beginning  of  the  second  season  a 
mound  of  soil  is  made  about  this  "stool"  deep  enough 
to  keep  the  base  of  the  shoots  moist  all  of  the  time 


198  SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 

during  the  summer,  when  in  the  fall  roots  will  be  found 
well  developed.  These  shoots  are  then  cut  off  and 
treated  as  rooted  cuttings,  which  after  one  season  in 
the  nursery  under  good  conditions  should  be  large 
enough  to  plant  in  the  orchard. 

PROPAGATION     OF     THE     GRAPEVINE 

The  grape  is  propagated  by  cuttings,  by 
layers  and  by  grafting,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
easily  propagated  of  the  fruits. 

Cuttings — Two    kinds    of    cuttings    are 
employed,   the    long   cutting   and    the   short 
cutting.     The   long   cutting,   under   ordinary 
care,  gives  the  best  results,  the  short  cuttings 
only  being  employed  under  glass.     The  long 
cuttings  are  made  of  canes  of  the  last  season's 
growth,  of  medium  size,  about  eight  to  ten 
inches  long,  containing  two  or  more  buds  to 
each  cutting.     (Figure  105.)     The  best  time 
to  make  them  is  in  the  fall  before  the  ground 
freezes,  tying  in  bundles  of  twenty-five  and 
carefully  heeling-in  in  a  sheltered  place  or  in 
a  cold-frame  where  they  will  not  freeze,  and 
~  where  they  can  be   gotten   at   early  in  the 
Cutting     spring  for  early  planting.     Cuttings  are  some- 
times planted  in  the  fall,  but  if  this  is  done 
a  heavy  mulch  of  stable  manure  should  be  put  on  the 
bed  before  the  ground  freezes  to  keep  them  from  being 
heaved  out  by  the  frost. 

Layers — Perhaps  the  best  method  by  which  the 
amateur  may  increase  his  stock  of  vines  is  the  "spring 
layer."  (Figure  106.)  This  consists  in  taking  canes  of 
last  season's  growth  and  bending  them  down  into  a 
trench  five  or  six  inches  deep  in  the  spring  before 
growth  begins,  and  after  the  buds  along  the  cane  have 
made  a  few  inches  of  growth,  filling  in  the  trench  with 


PROPAGATION    OF    TREES    AND    PLANTS  199 

good  soil,  when  during  the  summer  roots  will  form  at 
each  node  or  bud,  and  in  the  fall  we  shall  have  as  many 
rooted  plants  as  there  are  shoots.  If,  after  the  cane 
has  been  bent  down,  only  the  buds  at  the  end  of  the  cane 
and  those  near  the  vine  start,  it  may  be  bent  up,  when 
the  buds  at  the  highest  point  will  grow.  If  any  of 
these  new  canes  grow  faster  than  the  others  the  ends 
should  be  pinched  off  so  as  to  force  the  growth  into  the 
weaker  ones. 


Fig.  106-Layerlng  the  Grapevine 

Summer  Layer — This  consists  in  taking  a  cane 
of  the  present  season's  growth  and  bending  it  down 
into  a  trench  in  July,  covering  with  five  or  six  inches 
of  soil  as  in  the  spring  layer,  but  only  two  vines  will 
be  produced  from  each  cane  layered,  i.  e.,  that  at  the 
end  of  the  cane  and  that  part  nearest  to  the  vine.  By 
these  two  methods  anyone  who  has  a  vine  or  two  in 
the  garden  may  increase  the  number  with  much  more 
certainty  and  with  less  labor  than  from  cuttings. 


#00         SUCCESSFUL  FHUIT  CULTURE 

Grafting  the  Vine — Many  of  the  varieties  highly 
recommended  by  nurserymen  prove  of  little  value  except 
under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  and  after  planting 
it  becomes  necessary  to  destroy  them  or  to  change  the 
variety.  The  latter  can  be  done  with  a  limited  success 
only  by  grafting,  though  no  one  has  been  able  to  make 
more  than  a  small  per  cent  of  grafts  to  grow,  but  when 
they  do  succeed  the  growth  is  so  great  that  the  graft 
bears  fruit  often  the  next  year  after  grafting.  The 
most  successful  method  of  grafting  the  vine  is  by  cutting 


«  Pig.  107— drafting  the  Grapevine 

off  the  stock  two  or  three  inches  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground  in  the  fall  before  the  ground  freezes,  and 
making  a  colnmon  cleft  graft.  If  the  stock  does  not 
split  well  a  fine  saw  may  be  used  to  split  it.  After  the 
cion  has  been  inserted  the  soil  is  packed  firmly  about 
the  cleft,  no  wax  being  used,  then  a  small  flowerpot  is 
inverted  over  it  (Figure  107),  so  that  the  cion  may 
not  be  disturbed  when  being  uncovered  in  the  spring. 
More  soil  (d  d)  is  now  banked  around  the  flowerpot, 
and,  as  cold  weather  comes  on,  mulch  enough  is  put 


PROPAGATION    OF    TREES    AND    PLANTS  201 

on  to  keep  it  from  freezing  deeply  (g  /).  In  the  spring, 
after  heavy  frosts  are  over,  the  covering  is  taken  off,  the 
soil  packed  firmly  to  the  top  of  the  cion,  when,  if  the 
work  is  successful,  growth  will  begin  early  and  a  large 
vine  will  result.  This  kind  o-f  a  graft  is  also  made  by 
some  in  June  after  the  leaves  have  unfolded,  and  the 
sap  has  become  thickened,  but  the  cions  must  be  kept 
dormant  in  cold  storage  or  deeply  covered  on  the  ice  in 
an  icehouse.  If  the  stock  used  is  very  small  the  cion 
should  be  tied  in  with  a  strong  string  in  order  to  obtain 
pressure  enough  to  cause  the  cambium  layers  to  unite. 

PROPAGATION    OF    THE    CURRANT    AND    GOOSEBERRY 

These  two  fruits  are  propagated  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  grape,  i.  e.,  by  cuttings  and  layers. 

The  Currant — Cuttings  are  best  made  as  soon  as 
the  leaves  begin  to  fade  in  August  or  September.  They 
are  made  of  the  new  wood,  from  six  to  eight  inches 
long,  and  should  be  planted  at  once  for  the  best  growth. 
The  soil  should  be  a  deep,  moist,  rich  loam,  and  the 
planting  and  care  is  the  same  as  for  grape  cuttings  or 
root  grafts,  the  top  bud  of  the  cutting  being  just  covered 
with  soil.  Before  the  ground  freezes  the  bed  should  be 
covered  with  several  inches  of  strawy  manure  or  other 
mulch  to  prevent  the  heaving  of  cuttings  by  the  alter- 
nating freezing  and  thawing  during  the  winter  and 
spring.  If  the  work  is  successful  a  large  growth  may  be 
expected  the  next  season,  and  the  bushes  will  be  ready 
to  plant  at  one  or  two  years  from  the  time  the  cutting 
were  planted.  Layers  of  the  currant  are  made  like 
those  of  the  grape,  but  as  cuttings  root  so  easily  under 
proper  conditions,  the  layer  is  not  much  used. 

The  gooseberry  is  not  easily  grown  from  cuttings 
unless  the  canes  are  first  covered  with  soil  for  one 
season,  but  readily  grown  by  what  are  called  "rtools,""  as 


202          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

described  under  the  quince.  After  the  shoots  have  been 
covered  one  season  they  are  cut  off  and  planted  as 
cuttings,  rooting  readily,  and  at  two  years  they  are 
ready  to  plant  in  the  field. 

PROPAGATION     OF     THE     RASPBERRY     AND     BLACKBERRY 

These  two  fruits  are  increased  in  two  ways,  i.  e., 
from  suckers  and  from  root  cuttings.  A  sucker  plant 
is  one  that  naturally  comes  up  from  the  roots  of  these 
plants,  and  is  the  cause  of  their  spreading.  If  these 
sucker  plants  are  taken  up  we  find  that  they  have  but 
few  fine  roots,  but  if  carefully  taken  up  and  transplanted 
at  once  make  good  plants,  and  are  largely  used  in  setting 
new  plantations.  The  root  cuttings  are,  however,  much 
better,  as  they  have  an  abundance  of  fine  roots.  Root 
cuttings  are  made  by  digging  up  the  roots  of  the  desired 
kind  in  the  fall  before  the  ground  freezes,  cutting  them 
into  pieces  of  from  two  to  three  inches  in  length,  using 
everything  from  one-eighth  of  an  inch  up,  and  planting 
in  rich,  moist  soil  in  beds  or  wide  rows  about  as  peas 
are  planted,  covering  about  two  inches  deep.  Before 
the  ground  freezes  deeply  a  covering  of  coarse  stable 
manure  should  be  put  over  the  bed  that  the  ground 
shall  not  freeze  deeply.  In  the  spring  the  covering 
is  taken  off  as  soon  as  severe  freezing  weather  is  over, 
the  ground  carefully  cleared  of  weeds  as  the  season 
advances,  and  by  July  the  bed  will  be  studded  over 
with  buds  from  the  planted  roots.  The  only  care  needed 
during  the  summer  is  to  keep  the  weeds  down,  keep 
the  surface  of  the  soil  mellow  and  to  check,  by  pinching, 
any  very  strong  growing  plants  that  tend  to  injure  their 
neighbors.  At  the  end  of  the  season  the  plants  should 
average  two  feet  in  hight  and  have  a  large  mass  of  roots. 
Such  plants  are  far  more  valuable  than  the  sucker  plants, 
arid  sell  at  about  double  the  price. 


PROPAGATION    OF    TREES    AND    PLANTS  203 

The  blackcap  raspberry  is  propagated  by  the  ends 
or  tips  of  the  canes  taking  root.  This  takes  place  to 
a  limited  extent  without  assistance,  but  to  obtain  the 
largest  number  of  plants  the  ends  of  the  canes  should 
be  carefully  covered  with  one  or  two  inches  of  soil  the 
last  of  August  or  early  in  September.  The  layer  or 
"tip"  plants  (Figure  76)  are  better  if  not  taken  up 
until  the  following  spring,  but  if  carefully  dug  and 
handled,  it  may  be  done  in  the  fall  with  a  fair  degree 
of  success.  The  tips  should  not  be  planted  in  the  field 
until  spring. 

PROPAGATION    OP    THE    STRAWBERRY 

The  strawberry  is  not  generally  grown  as  a  nursery 
product  alone,  but  the  plants  for  setting  new  fields  are 
often  taken  from  the  fruiting  plantations.  To  a  lim- 
ited extent  this  practice  is  not  seriously  objectionable, 
but,  as  many  kinds  are  often  grown  in  the  fruiting 
fields  more  or  less  closely  together,  there  are  many 
chances  of  their  getting  mixed.  The  plants  cannot  be 
as  well  dug  as  from  a  bed  where  all  are  to  be  removed, 
and  therefore  it  is  better  to  have  all  plants  grown  in 
beds  where  no  fruit  is  expected.  A'  method  practiced 
by  some  of  the  experiment  stations  and  others,  called 
"summer  bedding,"  is  found  very  satisfactory.  This 
consists  in  heeling-in,  or  planting  in  close  rows  or  beds, 
the  runners  that  are  thinned  from  the  rows  or  the  field 
during  the  summer,  where  they  remain  until  the  follow- 
ing spring,  when  they  may  be  set  in  the  field  at  any  time 
from  the  first  of  April  to  June  without  being  checked 
in  transplanting.  In  this  way  runners  that  have  made 
but  very  short  roots,  if  heeled-in  and  shaded  for  a  day 
or  two,  will  make  strong  rooted  plants  in  a  few  weeks, 
and  each  plant  will  have  full  exposure  to  the  air  and 
sunlight,  thus  making  very  strong  plants. 


204  SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 

In  the  foregoing  pages  of  this  chapter  we  have 
given  a  brief  outline  of  the  methods  employed  in  propa- 
gating the  fruits  and  the  treatment  they  require  in  the 
nursery,  which  we  hope  will  enable  those  who  are  about 
to  go  into  fruit  raising  and  with  some  practice  to  grow, 
under  favorable  conditions,  good  trees  and  plants  for 
their  own  planting. 


XIX 


FRUIT  GROWING  UNDER  GLASS 

While  in  this  progressive  age  almost  all  of  the 
fruits  of  the  tropics  and  many  local  fruits  are  shipped 
to  the  North  in  a  perfectly  fresh  condition  from  the 
South,  yet  to  have  native  fruits  out  of  season  in  the 


Pig.   108     Curvilinear  Span-Roof  House 

great  perfection  that  they  may  be  grown  in  skillfully 
managed  fruit  houses  will  always  be  considered  a  great 
luxury.  For  many  jears  past  fruit  growing  under  glass 
has  received  much  less  attention  than  formerly  on 
account  of  the  improved  facilities  for  transportation, 
and  as  a  market  product  to  compete  with  Southern  or 
Pacific  Coast  products  the  fruit  houses  will  hardly  be 


206 


SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 


able  to  hold  their  own  except  for  its  greater  perfection. 
Large  estates,  with  their  numerous  gardens  and  green- 
houses, may  add  a  fruit  house,  a  cold  or  hot  grapery, 
or  force  strawberries  in  any  cool  house,  at  little  expense, 
with  a  great  deal  of  satisfaction.  So,  too,  the  owner 
of  a  city  home  with  but  a  few  rods  of  land  may  have, 
if  he  can.  afford  the  expense,  even  choicer  fruit  than 


Fly.  109-Straight  Sash  Bar  Lean-to  House 

can  be  grown  by  the  farmer,  and  so  control  conditions 
as  to  have  it  through  a  much  wider  range  of  season. 
This  expense,  however,  need  not  be  great  after  the  houses 
are  built,  and  these  may  be  simple  and  inexpensive 
structures  built  against  the  house  or  stable,  or  may  be 
very  elaborate  and  ornate,  built  by  skillful  greenhouse 
architects. 

As  with  fruits  out  of  doors  the  grower  must  be 
familiar  with  the  needs  of  each  crop — and  they  need 
practically  the  same  conditions  under  glass  that  they 


FRUIT     GROWING     UNDER     GLASS  20? 

do  in  the  field — and  be  prompt  and  persistent  in  carry- 
ing out  the  details  of  the  work  in  all  of  t  its  stages.  A 
little  neglect  or  wrong  treatment  for  even  a  short  time 
will  result  in  more  serious  injury  than  in  the  field. 
Too  high  or  too  low  temperature  for  even  a  short  time 
at  critical  moments  may  often  destroy  an  entire  season's 
growth,  and  no  one  should  undertake  the  care  of  fruit 
under  glass  unless  they  are  so  situated  that  attention 
can  be  given  to  the  crop  by  someone  at  any  moment 
of  the  day  when  conditions  may  require  it.  Among 
the  fruits  that  may  be  successfully  grown  under  glass 
are  the  peach,  apricot,  grape  and  strawberry. 

THE     PEACH     AND     APRICOT 

For  forcing  these  two  fruits,  very  nearly  the  same 
conditions  are  required.  The  most  approved  house  for 
this  work  is  one  with  a  span  roof  running  north  and 
south.  Both  the  curvilinear  (Figure  108)  and  the 
straight  sash  bar  (Figure  109)  are  used,  the  former 
being  more  ornamental,  whiLe  the  latter  will  make  a 
closer  house.  In  the  extreme  Northern  sections  the 
lean-to  has  the  advantage  that  it  can  be  most  easily 
heated,  on  account  of  the  shelter  wall  on  the  north  side. 
The  foundation  should  be  raised  above  the  surrounding 
land  to  insure  quick  surface  drainage  and  a  dry  atmos- 
phere. The  trees  are  generally  grown  in  borders,  but 
where  space  is  limited  they  may  be  grown  in  pots  or 
tubs  and  stored  during  the  winter  or  dormant  stage*  in 
close  quarters  in  the  houses,  in  stable  cellars  or  in  pits. 

The  Borders— The  borders  are  generally  made  in- 
side, as  seen  in  Figure  108,  but  may  be  partly  outside 
as  well,  as  shown  in  Figure  109,  and  should  be  made 
of  fine,  light,  but  moderately  rich  material.  Decayed 
sods,  leaf  mold,  coarse  bones,  mortar  waste  and  perhaps 
some  sand  if  the  soil  is  heavy  should  be  well  mixed 
together  for  this  purpose.  The  border  should  be  thor- 


208 


SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 


oughly  under  drained  with  tile,  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
trations, with  a  free  outlet,  so  that  there  shall  be  no 
possibility  of  water  standing  about  the  roots.  Where  the 
fruit  is  to  be  forced  during  the  winter  the  inside  border 
is  probably  the  best,  but  where  growth  does  not  begin 
until  spring  the  outside  border  has  some  advantages, 
requiring  less  care  as  to  watering,-  though  in  case  of 
heavy  rain  storms  may  become  too  wet  unless  drainage 
is  very  perfect.  The  roots  of  the  trees  planted  inside 
reach  the  outsider  border  through  6xl8-inch  openings  in 


III!  I  i  Mill 


-<5**~?  —  V'  —  \_Ia~  ~  ^       J""-^c^ 


Pig.  110—  Wall  with  Openings  for  the  Roots 

the  wall,  as  seen  at  a,  Figure  110,  at  intervals  opposite 
where  the  trees  are  planted,  the  border  being  filled  up 
nearly  to  the  sills  of  the  house.  The  soil  should  be 
woaked  over  thoroughly  several  times,  and  be  not  less 
than  two  feet  in  depth. 

Planting  —  Young,  vigorous  one-year-old  trees 
should  be  used,  the  roots  being  well  cut  back  and  the 
iop  trimmed  to  ten  to  twelve  inches,  or  perhaps  better, 
cut  down  to  two  or  three  buds.  The  advantage  of  the 
latter  method  is  that  one  clean  central  shoot  may  be 
trained  from  a  single  bud  near  the  ground  more  easily 
than  from  a  stock  one  foot  or  more  high,  and  the  buds 


FRUIT    GROWING     UNDER    GLASS  201) 

generally  start  with  greater  vigor  when  from  near  the 
ground.  The  planting  and  first  year's  treatment  under 
glass  is  practically  the  same  as  out  of  doors,  except  that 
the  training  should  be  directed  so  as  to  produce  the 
desired  form,  pinching  here  and  there  as  needed  to 
produce  the  flat  form  (espalier),  or  the  tree  form,  as 
desired.  The  aim  should  be  to  obtain  the  conditions 
that  would  give  the  best  growth  if  planted  outside. 

Watering — Water  should  be  applied  liberally 
whenever  the  border  becomes  dry,  but  too  much  water 
is  much  worse  than  too  little.  Syringe  the  foliage  two 
or  three  times  each  week  on  bright  sunny  mornings. 
In  extremely  hot,  moist  weather,  withhold  water,  and 
if  the  red  spider  appears — an  indication  of  a  too  dry 
atmosphere — syringe  more  freely.  Ventilate  freely  both 
night  and  day  during  the  summer,  but  in  very  cold, 
wet  weather,  keep  the  ventilators  partly  closed.  At 
blooming  time  withhold  water  and  keep  a  dry,  airy 
atmosphere.  So,  too,  when  the  fruit  is  beginning  to 
color,  give  more  air  and  increase  or  reduce  the  tempera- 
ture as  the  ripening  of  the  fruit  is  to  be  hastened 
or  retarded. 

Cultivation  and  Fertilization — During  the  growing 
season  the  border  should  receive  about  the  same  atten- 
tion as  is  given  borders  outside.  The  surface  should 
be  frequently  stirred,  and  no  weeds  allowed  to  grow. 
If  the  border  becomes  too  wet  it  will  dry  out  more 
quickly  if  allowed  to  stand  without  stirring.  Should  the 
growth  of  the  trees  be  weak  and  sickly  a  little  quick- 
acting  fertilizer  like  nitrate  of  soda  will  often  give 
them  a  start. 

Before  growth  begins  each  season  a  liberal  dressing 
of  well  decomposed  stable  manure  should  be  worked 
into  the  border.  To  this  may  be  added  to  advantage, 
sometimes,  a  light  dressing  of  air-slaked  lime  or  wood 
ashes. 


210          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

Training  the  Tree — Two  plans  or  methods  of 
training  commonly  practiced  are  the  tree  form  and  the 
"fan"  espalier  form,  the  latter  being  most  in  use.  Much 
skill  may  be  exercised  in  this  work,  and  many  modified 
forms  of  these  two  methods  produced  to  adjust  the  trees 
to  surrounding  conditions.  Each  season  the  new  shoots 
are  to  be  cut  back  more  or  less  to  insure  a  moderate 
number  of  blossoms  and  enough  shoots  to  renew  the 
fruit  bearing  wood  for  the  next  season.  No  surplus 
wood  should  be  allowed  to  grow,  the  whole  force  of  the 
tree  to  be  directed  to  the  production  of  the  fruit  and 
the  renewal  shoots.  During  the  summer  all  shoots  not 
needed  to  carry  out  the  plan  of  training  should  be  cut 
off  as  soon  as  they  appear. 

Thinning  the  Fruit — To  produce  fruit  of  the  best 
size,  quality  and  color,  but  a  limited  quantity  should 
be  allowed  to  grow  on  a  given  space  of  wood.  Reducing 
the  number  of  specimens  to  one-fourth  or  even  more 
will  often  not  reduce  the  measured  quantity  of  fruit 
ripened,  while  the  number  of  seeds  or  kernels  being 
largely  reduced,  the  strain  on  the  tree  is  not  as  great, 
and  it  will  often  make  a  much  larger  growth,  and  be 
in  better  condition  for  next  year's  crop.  No  rule  can 
be  given  as  to  the  number  of  specimens  to  be  left  or 
the  distance  apart  on  the  branches;  each  grower  must 
"use  his  judgment,"  but  it  is  best  to  err  on  the  safe 
side  by  thinning  liberally,  if  the  future  good  of  the 
trees  is  to  be  considered.  On  a  well  branched,  vig- 
orous tree,  four  inches  apart  would  give  a  large  number 
01  fruits,  while  if  the  tree  is  weak  six  inches  would  be 
a  better  distance. 

Varieties — Among  those  recommended  by  success- 
ful growers  are  the  following:  Peaches — Royal  George, 
Golden  Eagle,  Goshawk.  Nectarines — Cardinal,  Lord 
Napier,  Darwin,  Victoria. 

Trees  in  Pots — When  one  has  limited  glass  space 


FRUIT     GROWING     UNDER    GLASS  211 

and  a  good  cellar  or  pit  in  which  to  store  them  during 
the  winter,  trees  of  the  peach,  apricot  and  nectarine 
may  be  grown  in  pots  with  a  good  degree  of  satisfaction. 
Small  one-year-old  trees  should  be  planted  in  six  to 
eight-inch  pots  in  rich  soil  in  April  or  May,  and  be 
grown  vigorously  in  the  open  air  until  October.  For 
the  best  results  they  should  be  shifted  once  or  twice 
into  pots  of  larger  size  until,  when  well  grown,  they  will 
be  in  twelve-inch  size.  They  must  have  a  constant 
supply  of  water  and  an  abundance  of  plant  food.  To 
prevent  too  rapid  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the 
soil  in  the  pot,  they  should  be  plunged  to  their  rim, 
or  an  inch  or  two  lower  if  the  soil  is  dry,  in  soil, 
sphagnum  moss,  or  some  other  material  that  holds 
moisture  well.  They  should  be  plunged  where  they 
will  have  a  full  exposure  to  sunlight  and  air. 

Under  no  circumstances  must  the  soil  become  dry 
for  any  considerable  time,  and  whenever  water  is  ap- 
plied sufficient  should  be  used  to  saturate  the  soil  in 
the  pots  and  that  about  it.  If  the  roots  are  found  to 
grow  through  the  drain  hole  or  over  the  top  of  the  pot 
the  ball  of  roots  should  be  pulled  from  the  pot  and 
given  a  full  turn,  returning  all  roots  to  the  inside  of  the 
pot,  settling  the  soil  firmly  in  place  by  tamping.  As 
cold  weather  comes  on  less  water  should  be  used  that 
the  wood  may  become  well  ripened.  Any  mulch  about 
the  roots  should  be  removed  unless  in  times  of  severe 
drouth.  Allow  the  trees  to  stand  in  full  exposure  until 
there  is  danger  of  bursting  the  pots  by  frost,  when  the 
pots  may  be  protected  or  be  taken  up  and  placed  in  a 
frame  where  the  pots  can  be  protected. 

At  any  time  from  December  to  March,  after  consid- 
erable exposure  to  frost  has  been  given,  the  trees  may 
be  gradually  exposed  to  a  higher  temperature  in  a  light, 
airy  house,  starting  at  thirty-five  degrees  at  night  and 
forty  to  forty-five  degrees  during  the  daytime,  and 


212 


SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 


raising  it  about  two  to  three  degrees  a  week  until  well 
started  into  growth,  when  the  treatment  must  be  the 
same  as  for  trees  planted  in  the  borders. 


GRAPES     UNDER     GLASS 


Of  all  the  fruit  crops  under  glass  none  gives  the 
satisfaction  that  the  grape  does,  and  none  is  so  easily 
grown.  They  may  be  grown  in  cheap  houses  with  a 


Fig.  Ill— Cold  drapery 

border  outside  and  without  any  artificial  heat,  the  fruit 
ripening  a  little  earlier  than  the  outdoor  crop,  or  in 
houses  with  borders  inside,  and  by  the  aid  of  artificial 
heat,  the  fruit  may  be  ripened  at  any  time  from  July  to 
January.  Many  of  the  varieties  grown  under  glass 
possess  such  long-keeping  qualities  that  they  may  be 
had  in  perfect  condition  nearly  the  year  around  by  a 


FRUIT     GROWING     UNDER     GLASS  213 

little  especial  care,  i.  e.,  cutting  a  part  of  the  cane  with 
each  bunch  and  inserting  it  in  a  bottle  of  water  and 
hanging  in  a  cool,  dry  cellar. 

Cold  Grapery — Any  glass  house  comparatively 
close,  with  long  sash  bars,  and  space  for  a  border  outside 
or  in,  may  be  used  with  success  for  this  work.  The 
best  form  is  perhaps  a  lean-to  eighteen  to  twenty  feet 
wide  facing  the  south,  with  long  rafters  or  sash  bars  and 
ventilators  at  the  top  and  bottom.  Strong  one-year-old 
vines  are  planted  in  the  border  outside,  with  the  cane 
growing  through  the  openings  in  the  wall,  as  seen  in 
Figure  111. 

The  Border — The  border  should  be  made  about  two 
feet  deep,  of  about  the  same  material  used  for  making 
the  fruit  house  border,  i.  e.,  partly  rotted  turf,  leaf  mold, 
sand,  bones,  old  mortar,  etc.  It  should  be  well  under- 
drained  and  the  whole  texture,  when  completed,  should 
be  light,  warm  and  rich.  The  first  year  it  need  be 
made  only  four  to  six  feet  wide,  each  year  adding  about 
two  feet,  until  it  is  fourteen  to  sixteen  feet  wide.  Fine 
ground  bone  and  wood  ashes  make  a  good  fertilizer  if 
the  soil  is  not  too  heavy. 

Training  the  Vine  (first  year) — At  planting  the 
vine  is  cut  back  so  that  one  or  two  buds  will  come  inside 
of  the  wall,  as  seen  at  a,  Figure  111.  Only  one  cane  is 
allowed  to  grow,  and  this  should  make  from  six  to  eight 
feet,  but  the  end  be  pinched  off  when  it  has  reached 
five  feet,  that  the  buds  and  wood  may  fully  mature.  No 
laterals  are  allowed  to  grow.  If  from  any  cause  one  of 
the  lateral  buds  should  start  into  growth,  one  leaf  is 
allowed  to  unfold,  when  the  cane  should  be  pinched  off 
just  beyond  it,  as  shown  in  Figure  111.  The  removal 
of  this  leaf  would  cause  the  bud  at  its  base  to  grow. 

Summer  Care — During  the  summer  little  care  need 
be  given  the  border.  If  properly  made  it  will  take 
care  of  itself  unless  it  should  become  flooded,  which 


214         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

good  drainage  will  prevent.  The  inside  treatment 
needed  is  an  abundance  of  air  and  sunlight.  As  the 
time  for  growth  begins  keep  the  ventilators  well  open 
in  all  bright,  warm  weather,  night  or  day,  so  that  the 
vines  will  not  start  too  early,  but  keep  closed  when  very 
cold  or  wet.  Sudden  changes  from  high  temperature 
to  low  and  close  hot  weather  tend  to  bring  on  mildew 
and  rot,  and  must  be  avoided.  During  the  summer  the 
atmosphere  should  be  kept  on  the  dry  side,  syringing 
the  foliage  in  the  morning  during  bright  weather  once 
or  twice  each  week  and  more  frequently  should  "red 
spiders"  gain  a  foothold.  When  in  bloom  and  again 
when  the  fruit  is  ripening,  and  until  well  ripened,  use 
but  little  water,  and  expose  to  full  air  and  sunlight 
to  ripen  the  wood. 

Training  the  Vine  (second  year) — The  first  year's 
growth  of  five  or  six  feet  is  generally  cut  back  to  two 
or  three  feet,  as  seen  at  &,  Figure  111,  and  the  second 
year  be  allowed  to  start  a  strong  bud  at  the  end.  The 
lateral,  Figure  111,  will  burst  also,  and  a  few  bunches  of 
fruit  might  be  set,  but  this  is  not  advisable  until  the 
second  year.  The  ends  of  all  laterals  should  be  pinched 
off  as  soon  as  one  leaf  has  been  formed,  as  seen  in  same 
figure.  Often  several  buds  will  start  into  growth  from 
one  node,  all  but  the  central  one  of  which  should 
be  rubbed  off  entirely.  As  with  the  first  year's  growth, 
no  laterals  are  allowed  to  grow  more  than  one  leaf  at  a 
time.  At  the  end  of  the  second  year  the  leader  will  have 
made  one  clean  cane  from  eight  to  fifteen  feet  long 
(Figure  111,  a,  b,  c),  with  a  few  laterals  on  the  growth 
of  last  year.  (Figure  111,  a,  b.) 

Training  the  Vine  (third  year) — At  the  beginning 
of  the  third  season's  growth  we  should  cut  the  new  cane 
to  about  three  feet,  thus  increasing  the  fruiting  cane  to 
about  six  feet  in  length.  From  each  bud  of  this  cane  will 
be  sent  out  shoots  at  every  node,  as  seen  in  Figure  112, 


FRUIT     GROWING     UNDER    GLASS 


215 


each  of  which  will  produce  from  one  to  three  bunches  of 
blossoms.  As  soon  as  these  can  be  distinguished  the  cane 
should  be  pinched  off  to  the  last  large  cluster  and  one 
leaf;  thus  there  will  be,  when  set,  one  large  cluster  of 
fruit  and  one  or  more  large  leaves,  besides  the  leaves  of 
the  main  canes.  During  the  summer,  as  soon  as  a  new 
leaf  has  been  formed  beyond  the  last  bunch,  the  end  of 
the  cane  is  pinched  off 
and  at  the  end  of  the 
season  we  will  have  short 
spurs  upon  which  are 
large  bunches  of  grapes. 
In  pruning  the  laterals 
after  fruiting,  cut  back 
so  as  to  reduce  the 
length  of  the  spur  for 
the  next  year's  cane  as 
much  as  possible.  Fig- 
ure 112  shows  how  much 
the  spu?  would  be  elon- 
gated if  the  cut  were 
made  at  the  large  bud, 
I,  and  how  much  shorter 
it  would  be  if  the  cut 
were  to  be  made  as 
shown  at  a. 

Each  succeeding  sea- 
son the  work  is  a  repeti- 
tion of  that  of  the  third  year  until  the  permanent  vine 
reaches  the  ridge  of  the  house.  Each  succeeding  year, 
however,  will  be  likely  to  be  met  with  some  new  difficulty, 
the  result  of  climatic  or  other  changes,  insect  pests  or 
fungous  diseases,  which  must  be  met  and  overcome.  If 
a  vine  becomes  weak  or  seriously  injured  by  cold  the 
root  often  may  be  in  a  healthy  condition,  and  the  top 
may  be  renewed  by  starting  a  new  cane  from  the  ground. 


Fiff.  Ill-Training  the  Vine  the 
Third  Year 


216          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

This  is  often  practiced  and  the  fruit  from  the  young 
cane  is  much  superior  to  that  from  the  old,  weak  vine. 
Thinning  the  Fruit — Almost  every  variety  of  the 
European  grapes  that  are  grown  under  glass  sets  so 
many  berries  to  the  bunch  and  the  stems  are  so  short 
that,  when  fully  grown,  they  are  so  crowded  that  many 
are  forced  from  their  stem  or  are  cracked,  and  the  whole 
bunch  soon  decays.  To  prevent  this  loss,  when  the  ber- 
ries are  about  one-half  grown,  those  on  the  inside  with 
short  stems  are  thinned  out.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary 
to  cut  out  more  than  three-quarters  of  the  berries  if 
the  bunches  set  are  very  large  and  the  vines  growing 
very  vigorously,  but  for  an  average  growth  one-third 
to  one-half  will  be  sufficient.  Among  the  best  varieties 
for  the  cold  grapery  are  Foster's  Seedling,  Buckland 
Sweetwater  and  Black  Hamburg. 

Hothouse  Grapes — The  construction  of  the  house 
for  forcing  grapes  is  practically  the  same  as  for  the 
cold  grapery,  except  that  the  border  is  generally  inside, 
and  artificial  heat  is  used.  The  treatment  of  the  vines 
after  starting  into  growth  is  also  very  similar,  though 
more  care  must  be  exercised  during  cold  weather  to 
prevent  a  chill,  which  will  often  bring  on  mildew  or 
rot.  Among  some  of  the  leading  varieties  for  forcing 
are  Muscat  of  Alexandria  and  Gros  Colman. 

FORCING    THE     STRAWBERRY 

With  a  good  supply  of  this  fruit  shipped  to  the 
Northern  cities  from  the  South  as  early  as  the  middle 
of  January,  and  then  sent  in  from  the  North  after  the 
local  crop  has  been  harvested  as  late  as  September,  and 
the  many  autumn  fruiting  varieties,  the  forcing  of  the 
strawberry  will  probably  never  become  a  large  industry. 
When  managed  skillfully,  fruit  of  very  fine  quality  may 
be  put  into  the  market  early  in  January,  and  bring  the 
highest  prices,  as  it  must  to  meet  expense  of  growing. 


FRUIT     GROWING     UNDER    GLASS  217 

Success  in  this  work  depends  largely  upon  strong, 
well  rooted  plants  in  large  pots  of  rich  soil,  and  a  full 
resting  state  under  similar  conditions  to  those  found 
in  the  field  grown  crop.  Strong  runners  from  vigorous 
plants  are  layered  early  in  the  summer  in  three-inch 
pots,  as  seen  in  Figure  113.  As  soon  as  they  are  well 
rooted  they  are  shifted  to  five  or  six-inch  pots  and 
placed  where  they  can  have  careful  attention  as  to 
watering  and  plant  food.  They  must  be  kept  growing 
vigorously  until  the  time  for  resting  in  the  fall,  and 


Fig.  113— Layering  Strawberry  Plants  in  Pots 

if  the  plant  food  in  the  pots  becomes  exhausted,  as  it 
often  will  when  water  has  run  through  the  soil  freely, 
more  plant  food  must  be  applied.  For  success  an  abun- 
dance of  fine  white  roots  and  large,  heavy  leaves  must 
be  produced. 

As  soon  as  freezing  nights  come  on,  the  whole 
plant  and  surface  soil  of  the  pots  should  be  exposed  to 
the  weather,  water  should  also  be  withheld,  but  the  soil 
never  be  allowed  to  become  quite  dry.  After  having 
been  thus  exposed  to  freezing  weather  for  a  few  weeks, 
forcing  may  begin,  though  tho  longer  frozen  the  better 
they  will  force.  The  plants  should  be  placed  in  a  light, 


mmm 


FRUIT     GROWING     UNDER     GLASS  219 

airy  house,  with  a  temperature  beginning  at  thirty-three 
to  thirty-five  degrees  at  night  and  forty  to  forty-five 
degrees  during  the  day,  gradually  raising  it  two  to  three 
degrees  each  week  until  forty  to  forty-five  degrees  at 
night  and  fif  ty  to  sixty  degrees  during  the  day  is  reached. 
As  much  air  must  be  kept  on  the  house  as  possible,  and 
an  abundance  of  water  be  given. 

Liquid  manure  may  be  used  every  week  after 
blooming  if  the  plants  are  not  growing  rapidly.  When 
the  plants  are  showing  bud  they  should  be  placed  as 
near  the  glass  as  possible,  but  the  pots  be  shaded 
by  the  foliage  by  placing  close  together,  or  by  some 
packing  like  sphagnum .  moss  about  them.  When  the 
flowers  begin  to  open  the  atmosphere  should  be  kept 
as  dry  as  possible.  Fertilization  of  the  flowers  should 
be  done  by  hand  with  the  camel's  hair  brush  or  by 
having  bees  in  the  house.  To  keep  the  fruit  from  get- 
ting into  the  dirt  and  decaying,  pieces  of  wire  netting 
up  a  vigorous  growth,  and  maintain  as  nearly  as  possible 
can  be  placed  on  top  of  the  pots,  as  seen  in  Figure  114. 

The  aim  in  all  stages  of  growth  should  be  to  supply 
the  best  soil  and  an  abundance  of  plant  food ;  to  keep 
the  temperature,  moisture  and  air  of  an  ideal  season 
for  strawberry  growing  outside.  The  best  varieties  for 
forcing-  are  probably  those  that  succeed  best  in  field 
culture,  and  yet  few  can  hope  to  supply  the  exact  condi- 
tions under  which  they  succeed  in  the  field.  I  would 
suggest  the  Clyde,  Brandywine,  Sample  and  Senator 
Dunlap  as  among  the  best. 


XX 
INSECT  PESTS 

There  is  nothing  connected  with  the  subject  oi: 
fruit  growing  that  is  of  more  importance  than  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  habits  of  the  insect  and  fungous  pests  that 
we  have  to  contend  with  and  how  to  prevent  their 
injury.  It  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter  to  make  the 
trees  grow,  and  perhaps  to  set  a  large  crop  of  fruit,  but 
if  this  fruit  is  injured  by  insects  or  fungous  pests,  it 
will  not  be  salable  at  paying  prices.  With  the  increase 
of  the  number  of  trees  or  fruit  plants  in  any  given 
locality  comes  an  increase  in  the  number  of  these  pests, 
and  the  successful  fruit  grower  must  equip  himself  with 
spraying  outfits  and  make  use  of  insecticides  and  fungi- 
cides if  he  will  insure  the  quantity  and  quality  of  his 
fruit  crop. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  to  describe  the  various 
pests  with  scientific  accuracy,  but  to  show  them  as  they 
will  be  seen  by  the  practical  fruit  grower.  % 

PREVENTIVES 

The  first  consideration  in  growing  good  fruit  is 
to  so  grow  the  trees  or  plants  that  they  will  be  the 
least  liable  to  the  attack  of  insects  or  fungi.  The  con- 
dition of  the  tree  will  have  a  great  influence  on  the 
amount  of  injury  that  will  be  done  by  these  pests.  The 
more  vigorous  the  growth",  the  less  will  be  the  injury 
from  fungous  diseases,  and,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
that  from  insects  also,  as  most  of  the  fungi  and  many 
of  the  insects  only  attack  the  weak  plants.  An  abun- 


INSECT     PESTS  221 

dance  of  plant  food  and  good  care  and  cultivation  must 
therefore  be  the  first  point  to  be  attended  to,  but  cannot 
be  wholly  depended  upon,  for,  when  the  season  is  right 
for  the  rapid  increase  of  insects  or  fungi,  trees  under 
all  conditions  will  be  sure  to  be  more  or  less  injured 
unless  the  work  of  spraying  is  promptly  and  thoroughly 
done.  Insecticides  should  be  applied  when  the  first 
insects  appear,  and  fungicides  before  the  spores  come  in 
contact  with  the  host  plant.  If  the  first  insect  is  de- 
stroyed there  will  be  no  further  trouble,  and  if  the  first 
spore  or  seed  of  the  fungus  is  destroyed,  or,  coming 
into  contact  with  the  copper  sulphate,  fails  to  germinate, 
there  can  be  no  further  growth  of  that  pest.  Therefore 
we  should  adopt  the  rule  that  "prevention  is  better  than 
cure,"  and  it  is  certainly  cheaper. 

INSECTICIDES  (INSECT  KILLERS) 

The  substances  used  to  destroy  insects  on  our  plants 
may  be  divided  into  two  groups:  Those  that  kill  by 
contact,  and  those  that  kill  by  being  taken  into  the 
stomachs  of  the  insects,  i.  e.,  those  killing  "sucking" 
insects  and  those  killing  "chewing"  insects. 

1.  Of  the  first,  the  most  in  use  are  Paris  green, 
London  purple,  arsenate  of  lead,  hellebone,  arsenate  of 
lime,  arsenate  of  soda,  white  arsenic,  etc. 

2.  Of  the  second  group  most  in  use,  we  may  men- 
tion whale-oil  soap,  linseed  oil,  kerosene,  crude  petrol- 
eum and  pyrethrum  or  Persian  insect  powder. 

Promptness  and  thoroughness  in  the  application 
of  insecticides  should  be  the  watchword.  The  best 
pumps  for  the  work  in  hand  should  be  used,  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  insecticides  and  fungicides  should  be  most 
cnrefully  done,  and  in  mixing  and  applying  the  greatest 
economy  of  labor  be  practiced.  In  fact,  in  all  the  work 
attending  the  growing  and  caring  for  any  crop  of  fruit, 
thorough  work  and  business  dispatch  must  be  the  rule 


222          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

if  any  profit  is  to  be  expected.  In  all  this  work  of  fruit 
growing  the  margin  of  profit  is  very  small,  and  the 
strictest  economy  must  be  practiced  even  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions. 

PUMPS 

Much  of  the  success  in  the  protection  of  our  fruit 
crops  depends  upon  the  pump  used,  but  there  are  so 
many  good  pumps  now  upon  the  market  that  no  one 
need  use  a  poor  one.  The  main  points  to  be  consid- 
ered are: 

1.  That  the  pump  be  large  enough  to  throw  the 
liquid  with  so  much  force  that  it  shall  break  into  a 
very  fine  spray  and  yet  strike  the  plants  with  force 
enough  to  have  it  cover  the  surface  of  all  the  parts  of 
the  plant  sprayed. 

2.  All  the  parts  that  come  in  contact  with  the 
liquids  must  be  of  brass  or  copper  if  copper  solutions 
are  to  be  used,  as  iron  would  soon  be  eaten  out  by 
the  copper. 

3.  An    effective    agitating   apparatus    should   be 
provided,  or  very  unequal  results  will  be  obtained,  and 
if  Paris  green  and  other  insecticides  are  used,  much 
injury  may  be  done. 

4.  Good  rubber  hose  should  be  supplied  of  suffi- 
cient lengths  to  be  easily  and  quickly  moved  around 
the  trees  or  plants  being  sprayed.     It  will  be  found  that 
the  best  quality  of  hose  will  generally  be  the  cheapest 
in  the  end,  and  that  of  half-inch  diameter  will  last 
longer  than  larger  sizes  where  it  is  to  be  moved  and 
pulled  about  very  much,  as  it  does  not  kink  up  as  much. 

Co-operation  in  spraying,  where  orchards  and  fruit 
plantations  are  small,  will  be  found  of  great  economy, 
as  has  been  the  case  in  many  sections  where  this  has 
been  done,  as  well  as  in  co-operation  in  the  selling  of 
the  crops,  etc.  The  cost  of  appliances  for  spraying  on 


INSECT     PESTS  2#3 

a  small  place  is  often  more  than  the  profits  will  warrant, 
and  one  outfit  often  would  be  sufficient  to  do  the  spray- 
ing for  a  large  community  or  even  a  township,  and  at 
a  great  saving  in  time  and  money.  Most  of  the  spraying 
pumps  and  machines  are  rather  delicately  made,  and 
must  have  good  care,  as  with  all  other  farm  and  garden 
implements,  and  one  must  be  something  of  a  mechanic 
to  keep  them  in  good  working  order.  After  using  the 
pump  with  mixtures  like  the  bordeaux,  unless  it  is  to  be 
used  very  soon  again,  clean  water  should  be  run  through 
it  until  both  the  pump  and  the  hose  are  well  rinsed 
out,  and  it  is  well  to  hang  the  hose  up  so  that  the 
water  will  drain  out  of  it  after  using. 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE 

Round-Headed  Apple  Tree  Borer  (Saperda  Candida) 
(Figure  115) — This  is  one  of  the  most  destructive 
insects  to  the  apple  tree,  and  one  of  the  most  widely 
distributed.  The  perfect  insect  (Figure  115,  c)  is  a 
beetle  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  with  three 
light  brown  and  two  creamy  white  stripes  upon  its  wing 
covers.  It  flies  at  night,  laying  its  eggs  upon  the  trunk 
in  crevices  of  the  bark,  not  far  from  the  ground,  in 
July  and  early  August.  The  eggs  soon  hatch  and  the 
young  larvae  (Figure  115,  a)  penetrate  the  bark,  feed- 
ing upon  the  bark  for  a  time,  often  not  reaching  deeper 
than  the  sapwood  until  the  following  spring.  The 
pupa  or  chrysalis  is  shown  in  Figure  115,  b. 

During  the  second  season  it  works  in  the  sapwood, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  second  season  may  be  found  in 
a  burrow  or  hole  that  often  runs  upward  for  several 
inches.  After  the  second  season  it  often  makes  a  turn 
outward  toward  the  bark,  where  it  undergoes  its  changes, 
and  the  following  spring  comes  out  a  perfect  insect  to  go 
through  its  round  of  life  again.  In  young  trees  it  often 
starts  on  one  side  of  the  tree,  works  into  it,  then  goes 


224:  SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 

upward  and  comes  out  on  the  other  side.  When  the 
insect  comes  out  of  the  tree  it  leaves  a  clean  hole,  and 
when  one  of  these  holes  is  found  nothing  need  be  done 
other  than  to  prevent  the  decay  of  the  injured  parts  by 
filling  the  hole  with  putty  or  forcing  in  linseed  oil.  Its 
presence  may  be  known  by  the  chips  or  droppings  that 
are  found  forced  out  of  its  hole,  or  by  the  discoloration 
of  the  bark  under  the  injured  parts. 

Remedy — The  best  and  cheapest  way  to  overcome 
the  injury  of  this  pest  is  to  examine  the  tree  twice 
each  year,  in  August  to  find  the  very  young  larvae,  and 


c 

Fig.  115    The  Round-Headed  Apple  Tree  Borer 

again  in  the  following  June  to  destroy  those  that  may 
have  escaped  in  the  August  examination,  digging  out 
the  larvae  with  a  pointed  knife  or  killing  with  a  wire. 
In  doing  this  work,  first  pare  off  the  outer  bark  until 
the  opening  where  the  larva  entered  is  found,  then 
follow  the  channel  until  the  larvae  are  reached,  or  until 
the  upward  burrow  is  found,  and  insert  the  wire.  If 
the  larvae  are  very  young  they  will  be  destroyed  in  the 
operation  of  paring  off  the  outer  bark,  but  if  deep  in 
the  tree  considerable  effort  will  be  sometimes  needed 
to'  reach  them. 

The  Flat-Headed  Apple  Tree  Borer  (Chrysobothris 
femorata)  (Figure  116) — This  beotle  is  smaller  than  the 


INSECT     PESTS 


225 


last,  of  a  steel  gray  color,  and  moves  about  in  the  day- 
time. It  lays  its  eggs  not  only  on  the  trunk,  but  some- 
times on  the  main  branches  as  well.  It  is  generally 
found  on  the  south  side,  and  begins  its  work  where 
there  has  been  some  injury  to  the  bark.  The  larvae  of 
the  flat-headed  borer  work  only  in  the  bark  and  sap- 
wood,  and  are  more  easily  destroyed  than  the  round- 
headed  borer.  The  insect  generally  completes  its 
changes  in  one  year,  and  in  many  places  it  is  more 
abundant  than  the  round-headed  borer,  and  is  more 
destructive.  Figure  116,  d,  shows 
the  perfect  beetle ;  b,  the  chrysalis ; 
a,  the  larva,  with  the  head  en- 
larged at  c. 

Remedy — The  presence  of  this 
larva  may  be  known  in  the  same 
way  as  that  of  the  round-headed 
borer,  and  the  remedy  is  the 
same.  The  use  of  washes  on  the 
trunk  or  branches  is  of  uncertain, 
if  of  any,  value,  while  examina- 
tion, if  thoroughly  made,  is  sure 
to  reveal  the  insects  if  present, 
and  there  is  no  uncertainty  about  it,  while  the  cost 
is  less. 

The  Oyster  Shell  Bark  Louse  (Mytilaspis  pomorum) 
— This  insect,  shown  in  large  numbers  in  Figure 
117,  injures  the  apple  tree  by  sucking  the  juices  from 
the  twigs  and  branches.  While  young  the  minute  insects 
move  about  freely,  but  soon,  finding  a  desirable  place, 
fix  themselves  and  feed  there  until  they  die.  During 
the  winter  and  spring  we  only  find  the  dead  shell  and 
numerous  eggs  securely  covered  by  it.  In  this  state  the 
shell  or  covering  is  so  securely  sealed  that  it  is  with 
difficulty  removed  from  the  bark,  and  can  be  destroyed 
only  by  very  strong  insecticides.  Figure  117,  a,  shows 


Fig.  116-Flat-Headed 
Apple  Tree  Borer 


226 


SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 


the  under  side  of  a  mature  insect  with  the  numerous 
eggs;  &,  same  from  above;  c,  twig  infested  by  female 
scales ;  d,  male  scale,  and  e,  twig  infested  therewith.  It 
generally  attacks  weak  trees  and  often  destroys  them. 

Remedy — It  may  be  destroyed  while  the  trees  are 
dormant  by  brushing  over  with  linseed  oil,  by  the  use 


Fig.  117    Oyster  Shell  Bark  Louse 

of  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent  mechanical  solution  of  kero- 
sene oil,  or  by  a  strong  solution  of  whale-oil  soap, 
two  pounds  to  one  gallon  of  water;  or,  after  the 
leaves  have  unfolded,  with  a  ten  per  cent  solution  of 
kerosene  when  the  young  are  moving  about,  which  is 
generally  during  the  early  part  of  June.  As  when  used 


INSECT     PESTS  227 

for  the  woolly  aphis,  the  kerosene  should  be  applied  with 
a  nozzle  that  gives  a  fine  spray,  and  only  on  bright  days. 
The  Tent  Caterpillar  (Clisiocampa  Americana) 
(Figure  118) — This  pest  is  so  familiar  to  almost  every- 
one in  its  larval  state  as  to  need  no  description.  The 


Fig.  118— The  Tent  Caterpillar 

a  6,  nest  and  larvae:  c,  eggs;  d,  cocoon 

various  stages  of  its  growth  are  shown  above,  including 
eggs,  nest  and  cocoon.  Its  eggs  are  laid  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  summer  in  clusters  of  200  to  300 
around  small  twigs  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  often 
on  those  of  the  wild  cherry,  peach  and  some  other 
trees.  Here  they  remain  until  the  following  spring, 


22S 


SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 


until  the  leaves  have  started,  when  they  hatch  out,  the 
larvae  feeding  rapidly  upon  the  young  foliage  and  form- 
ing a  conspicuous  web  in  the  forks  of  the  branches. 

Remedy  —  The  larvae  may  be  found  in  their  nests 
early  in  the  morning,  during  wet  weather,  and  in  the 
middle  of  very  hot  sunny  days,  when  they  may  be 
readily  removed  by  drawing  the  web  around  them, 

placing  the  mass 
on  the  ground  and 
crushing  with  the 


to  do  this  is  as 
soon  as  they  hatch 
out,  and  while  the 
web  is  small,  when 
with  a  glove  on  the 
hand  a  whole  col- 
ony may  be  crushed 
with  the  fingers. 
During  the  winter, 
when  pruning,  by 
looking  upward 
with  the  twigs 
against  the  sky, 

Fig.  119-The  S.n  Jo~  Scale  m&ny  Qf  ^  ^^ 

of  eggs  can  be  seen  and  removed,  and  all  chance  of 
injury  from  them  be  avoided. 

San  Jose  Scale  (Aspidiotus  perniciosus)  (Figure 
]19)  —  This  dangerous  insect,  recently  introduced  from 
Japan  or  other  foreign  countries,  has  become  a  most 
destructive  and  troublesome  pest  that  attacks  the  apple 
and  other  fruit  trees  as  well  as  many  forest  trees.  It 
has  become  widely  disseminated  throughout  the  coun- 
try, and  from  its  wonderful  powers  of  reproduction, 
unless  checked  promptly  by  parasites,  or  destroyed  by 
other  means,  it  may  seriously  injure  the  fruit  growing 


INSECT     PESTS  229 

interests  of  the  country.  The  perfect  insect  is  a  minute 
circular  scale  varying  from  one-thirty-second  to  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  which,  unlike  the 
oyster  shell  scale,  brings  forth  its  young  alive,  and  pro- 
duces many  broods  each  season,  increasing  so  rapidly 
that  in  a  single  season  entire  trees  may  be  destroyed. 

There  are  several  other  scales  that  resemble  this 
pest  so  closely  that  it  requires  an  expert  to  determine 
the  species,  but  the  others  do  not  increase  so  rapidly, 
and  when  trees  are  thickly  covered  with  small  scale 
insects  of  a  circular  form,  it  may  be  safely  concluded 
that  it  is  the  San  Jose  pest.  Most  of  the  experiment 
stations  of  the  country  have  been  at  work  to  discover 
a  sure  remedy  for  this  pest,  and  many  report  satisfactory 
results,  but  orchardists  generally  have  not  applied  the 
suggested  remedies  long  enough  to  prove  whether  they 
will  be  able  to  control  the  pest  without  the  aid  of  the 
State  or  government.  In  all  such  matters  it  is  always 
better  that  the  grower  protect  his  own  crops  than  be 
employed  by  the  State  to  do  the  work,  but  it  may  be 
wise  for  the  State  to  aid  in  the  work,  either  by  furnish- 
ing trained  men  to  advise  and  assist,  or  to  provide  some 
compensation  where  the  grower  has  suffered  serious  loss 
through  no  fault  of  his  own.  The  salt,  lime  and  sulphur 
mixture  has  proved  the  most  effectual  remedy,  and  in  its 
modified  simpler  forms  now  used  can  be  applied  by  the 
orchardist  at  no  very  great  expense.  The  use  of  hydro- 
cyanic gas  for  fumigating  trees  infested  has  reached  a 
considerable  extent  in  some  States,  and  is  reported  as 
effective,  but  the  gas  is  such  a  deadly  one  that  if  any 
other  substance  will  be  equally  effectual  this  should  not 
be  used. 

Remedy — Among  the  remedies  which  it  is  claimed 
will  destroy  or  control  this  pest  are  kerosene  oil,  linseed 
oil,  whale-oil  soap,  the  lime,  salt  and  sulphur  mixture, 
and  hydrocyanic  gas.  The  application  of  these  insecti- 


230 


SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 


cides  and  their  effectiveness  may  be  a  matter  of  some 
uncertainty. 

The  Canker  Worm  (Anisopteryx  vernata  and  A. 
pometaria)  (Figure  120,  a,  male;  6,  female;  e,  eggs;  /, 
larva;  g,  pupa) — In  many  sections  of  the  country  this 
insect  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  of  those  attack- 
ing the  apple  tree,  yet,  knowing  its  habits,  if  prompt 
application  be  made  of  well  known  remedies  it 
may  be  easily  and  cheaply  prevented  from  doing  much 
harm.  Two  species  (as  above)  of  this  genus  are  found 
here,  both  of  nearly  the  same  form  and  of  the  same 

habits.  The  female, 
which  has  no  wings, 
comes  out  during 
warm  nights  after 
the  ground  has  been 
frozen  in  the  fall  or 
early  in  the  spring, 
from  October  to  May, 
and  lays  its  eggs  in 
clusters  on  the  trunk 
and  branches.  As 
soon  as  the  leaves 
come  out  the  eggs 
begin  to  hatch  and  the  larvae  feed  upon  the  foliage 
until  the  trees  appear  as  if  fire  had  run  through  them. 
The  larvae  spend  several  weeks,  eating  all  but  the  mid- 
ribs of  the  leaves,  and  when  numerous  do  serious  harm. 
When  fully  grown  they  are  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  long  and  drop  from  the  tree  suspended  by  a  web, 
going  into  the  ground  to  undergo  their  changes.  When 
the  defoliation  of  the  trees  continues  for  several  years 
the  orchards  become  worthless. 

Remedy — Taking  advantage  of  the  habit  of  the 
female  insect,  which  must  crawl  up  the  tree  to  deposit 
its  eggs,  a  band  of  gas  tar  or  printer's  ink  is  put  around 


Fig.  120— The  Canker  Worm 


INSECT     PESTS  231 

the  trunks  of  the  trees  after  October  1,  and  must  be 
kept  fresh  and  soft  whenever  the  nights  are  warm,  up 
to  May  1.  If  the  ground  is  frozen  all  winter  the  bands 
need  have  no  care  until  spring,  when  the  frost  is 
out  and  the  nights  are  warm,  when  they  will  be 
crawling,  and  the  tar  or  ink  must  be  soft  at  these 
times  so  as  to  catch  them.  If  the  trees  are  young  it 
is  best  to  put  a  band  of  paper  about  the  trunk,  upon 
which  to  apply  the  tar,  to  prevent  injury  to  the 
bark,  but  on  old  trees  which  have  a  thick  bark  no 
harm  will  Be  done.  If  the  band  is  used  care  must 
be  taken  that  there  are  no  openings  under  it  that 
the  insects  can  crawl  under,  for  it  takes  but  a  few 
individuals  to  lay  eggs  enough  to  destroy  much  of  the 
foliage  on  a  tree  of  good  size.  Another  effectual  remedy 
is  to  encircle  the  tree  with  a  tin  or  zinc  trough,  in  which 
is  placed  some  cheap  non-drying  oil.  The  chief  objec- 
tion to  this  method  is  the  cost  of  the  troughs  and  the 
care  required  to  keep  them  filled  with  oil  and  to  keep 
them  from  being  filled  with  the  insects  as  they  crawl 
into  the  oil.  The  remedy  which  is  now  most  in  use  is 
to  leave  the  trees  until  the  larvae  begin  to  hatch,  and 
then  spray  with  Paris  green  in  water,  quarter  of  a  pound 
to  fifty  gallons,  or  with  the  bordeaux  mixture,  half  a 
pound  to  fifty  gallons.  The  first  application  should  be 
made  just  before  the  flowers  open  and  the  second  when 
the  petals  have  fallen.  This  remedy  has  the  advantage 
that  constant  attention  need  not  be  given  during  the 
winter,  that  this  and  many  other  insects  are  killed  at  one 
or  two  sprayings,  and  the  bordeaux  will  prevent  the  apple 
scab  fungus  from  injuring  the  foliage.  Thus  two  objects 
are  gained  by  one  spraying. 

The  Apple  Aphis  or  Plant  Louse  (Aphis  mail)  — 
The  aphides,  of  which  this  is  only  one  of  a  great  number 
of  species,  are  green,  brown  or  black  insects  very  small 
in  size,  that  suck  the  juices  of  the  tender  shoots  and 


232         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

leaves,  doing  an  immense  amount  of  damage,  and  there 
are  few  plants  that  do  not  have  a  specific  kind  that 
feeds  upon  them.  The  apple  aphis  is  green  in  color  and 
often  feeds  all  summer,  but  generally  only  during  the 
early  part  of  the  season.  Figure  121  shows  two  forms 
enlarged  and  one  winged  form  of  natural  size. 

Remedy — This  insect  is  destroyed  by  the  use  of 
whale-oil  soap,  by  tobacco  water  and  by  kerosene  applied 
as  for  scale  insects.  If  the  leaves  are  much  curled 
it  is  best  to  pick  off  those  most  curled  before  spraying 
is  done,  or  the  ends  of  the  shoots  are  sometimes 

removed  and  burned  or 
dropped  into  kerosene. 
The   Codlin  Moth 
(Carpocapsa  pomo- 
nella)—  Figure  122 
illustrates  a  part  of  an 
apple    injured    by   this 
insect,      a     shows     the 
Fig.  121-The  Apple  Aphis  burrow ;  I,  the  point  at 

which  the  worm  entered ;  e,  full  grown  worm ;  d,  pupa ; 
f,  moth  with  folded  wings;  g,  moth  with  expanded 
wings;  h,  head  enlarged;  i,  cocoon  which  encloses  the 
pupa.  This  is  perhaps  the  most  destructive  insect 
attacking  this  fruit.  It  flies  at  night  and  lays  its  eggs 
on  the  leaves  or  surfaces  of  the  apple.  The  larva  then 
moves  about  until  it  finds  the  calyx  of  the  apple,  when 
it  enters  and  feeds  until  full  grown,  coming  out  at  some 
other  place  and  dropping  by  a  web  to  the  ground,  or 
crawls  to  some  shelter,  as  the  crevice  in  the  bark  or 
other  dry  place,  where  it  spins  its  cocoon.  Generally 
but  one  brood  is  produced  in  a  season,  but  under 
favorable  conditions,'  the  larvae  that  come  out  in  June 
or  July  may  complete  their  changes  and  lay  another 
brood  of  eggs  in  August  or  September  th'at  will  hatch 
and  injure  the  fruit  late  in  the  season.  This  brood 


INSECT     PESTS 


233 


enters  the  apple  from  other  points  than  the  blossom 
cncl — generally  where  a  leaf  lies  close  to  the  apple  or 
where  two  apples  touch. 

Remedy — The  application  of  Paris  green  with  the 
bordeaux  mixture  as  directed  for  the  canker  worm, 
has  been  found  to  destroy  more  than  seventy  per  cent 
of  the  larvae  of  the  first  brood,  but  as  this  mixture 
would  disfigure  the  fruit,  if  applied  for  the  second 
brood,  other  remedies  must  be  employed  for  the  late 
brood.  Pasturing 
the  orchard  with 
sheep,  swine  or  • 
cattle  is  practiced 
by  many  orchard- 
ists  for  the  pur- 
pose of  keeping 
this  insect  and  the 
apple  maggot  in 
check,  with  good 
results.  If  sheep 
or  cattle  are  kept 
in  the  orchard  it 
will  be  necessary 
to  train  the  trees 
with  a  trunk  five 
or  more  feet  high, 

to  prevent  injury  to  the  lower  branches.  Swine  some- 
times will  injure  the  trees  by  eating  the  bark  or 
by  rooting  and  destroying  the  feeding  roots.  In  the 
former  case  the  protection  of  the  trunk  by  wire 
netting  or  stakes  driven  down  and  wired  to  the  trunk, 
and  an  abundance  of  food,  will  generally  prevent  them 
from  rooting  very  deeply,  but  if  this  is  not  effectual 
"ringing"  their  noses  will  be.  A  large  number  of  fowls 
will  also  be  sure  to  destroy  most  of  the  insects  that  go 
into  the  ground  to  undergo  their  transformations,  as 


Fig.  122-The  Codlin  Moth 


234         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

the  codlin  moth,  canker  worm  and  apple  maggot.  The 
cocoons  may  be  also  trapped  by  bands  of  cloth  or  straw 
put  around  the  trunks,  and  examined  occasionally 
during  the  summer,  and  the  cocoons  destroyed. 

.  The  Apple  Maggot  (Trypeta  pomonella]  (Figure 
123) — This  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  of  the  insect 
pests  that  attack  the  apple.  The  perfect  insect  is  a 
small  fly,  about  one-half  the  size  of  the  common  house 
fly,  that  appears  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  and 
early  fall,  laying  its  eggs  under  the  skin,  through  a 
minute  puncture  which  it  makes.  It  attacks  sweet  and 
mild  flavored  varieties  more  than  very  acid  or  winter 
fruit,  though  some  winter  sorts  are  seriously  injured  by 
the  maggots.  Most  of  the 
injury  is  done  as  the  fruit 
is  approaching  maturity,  or 
after  it  has  fallen  to  the 
ground. 

Remedy — No   means 
has  been  found  by  which-  the 

Fig.  123-The  Apple  Maggot        inS6ct     Can     be     CaUSht     °r 
destroyed  before  the  egg  is 

laid,  and  therefore  the  only  way  it  can  be  prevented 
from  doing  harm  is  to  gather  the  fruit  before  the  eggs 
are  laid  or  to  destroy  the  poor  fruit  while  the  larva  is 
still  in  the  fruit.  This  is  done  practically  and  eco- 
nomically by  pasturing  the  orchards  with  swine  and 
poultry  where  the  trees  are  low  headed,  and  with  cattle 
and  sheep  if  the  head  is  high.  If  the  fruit  is  picked 
as  soon  as  matured  and  put  into  closed  buildings  or 
sold  at  once,  few  insects  will  be  matured,  but  to  have 
this  method  a  success  all  the  growers  in  a  locality  must 
do  the  same.  Summer  and  fall  apples  must  not  be 
allowed  to  decay  on  the  ground,  as  it  furnishes  the 
best  possible  place  for  their  breeding.  Fresh  dropped 
apples  are  worth  from  three  to  eight  cents  per  bushel 


INSECT     PESTS 


235 


as  food  for  stock,  and  this  will  pay  the  cost  of  picking 
up  all  fallen  fruit  once  or  twice  each  week. 

The  Woolly  Aphis  or  Louse  (Schizoneura  lanigera) 
(Figure  124,  a,  rootlet  showing  galls;  b,  wingless  aphis; 
c,  winged  aphis;  d-g,  structural  details;  b-g,  magnified) 
— Although  this  is  commonly  known  as  the  root  louse 
and  generally  found  on  the  roots  of  the  apple  tree, 
it  often  causes  much  injury  to  the  trunk  and  main 
branches.  It  is  a  small  insect,  about  one-sixteenth  to 


Fig.  124-The  Woolly  Aphis 

one-eighth  of  an  inch  long,  and  more  or  less  covered 
with  a  cottony,  nearly  white,  substance,  whence  comes 
its  name.  It  attacks  the  trunk  and  the  branches  in 
patches,  sucking  the  juices  and  causing  black,  canker- 
like  places  which  may  spread,  often  destroying  the 
limb.  It  most  commonly  attacks  parts  that  have  been 
previously  injured  in  some  way,  as  in  climbing  about 
.to  pick  the  fruit,  in  pruning,  or  an  injury  by  the  black 
rot  fungus  increasing  its  injuries.  The  roots  of  young 
trees  are  often  seriously  injured  by  this  pest,  baffling 
all  efforts  of  the  grower  to  make  them  grow,  and  the 
cause  of  this  condition  not  being  known  until  the  tree 
is  dug  up. 


236          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

Remedy — When  the  injury  is  upon  the  branches, 
the  application  of  soft  soap  or  strong  whale-oil  soap 
solution  with  a  stiff  brush  will  be  effectual,  or  kerosene 
if  applied  in  a  fine  spray  so  that  it  will  not  stand  in 
drops  on  the  foliage  will  be  equally  good.  A  bright 
airy  day  should  be  selected  that  the  kerosene  may  be 
applied  liberally  and  yet  evaporate  quickly  if  the  trees 
are  in  leaf.  When  the  leaves  are  off  it  can  be  much 
more  freely  used,  and  therefore  the  first  or  preventive 
measures  should  be  tried.  Its  presence  on  the  roots  of 
young  trees  can  only  be  determined  by  digging  up  one 
or  two  trees. 

Plum  Curculio  (Conotrachelus  nenuphar) — This 
pest,  which  is  perhaps  more  destructive  to  the  stone 
fruits  than  to  the  apple,  is  seriously  injurious  to  the 
latter.  It  attacks  the  fruit  in  its  young  stage,  making 
the  crescent  shaped  mark  shown  in  Figure  126,  in 
which  it  lays  its  egg.  These  eggs  do  not  mature  in 
the  apple,  but  the  fruit  is  disfigured  and  at  the 
punctured  place  often  fails  to  grow,  thus  producing 
gnarly  and  irregular  fruit. 

Remedy — See  under  the  plum. 

INSECTS  ATTACKING  THE  PEAR 

The  Round-Headed  Borer,  Flat-Headed  Borer,  San 
Jose  Scale,  Oyster  Shell  Bark  Louse  and  Codlin  Moth, 
described  as  attacking  the  apple,  are  also  injurious  to  the 
pear,  but  the  canker  worm  and  apple  maggot  do  not 
attack  it.  Remedies  for  the  above  insects  have  already 
been  described. 

Pear  Tree  Psylla  (Psylla  pyricola)  (Figure  125)  — 
A  minute,  flat,  yellow,  aphis-like,  jumping  insect  that 
injures  the  trees  by  sucking  the  juice  from  the  leaves 
and  young  branches.  Wherever  the  punctures  are 
made  the  juice  exudes  and  a  pool  is  formed  in  which 


INSECT     PESTS  237 

the  insect  works.  The  first  indication  of  their  pres- 
ence may  be  numerous  bees,  wasps  or  hornets  about  the 
trees  in  search  of  the  sweet  liquid  thus  produced. 
Soon  the  trees  have  a  dirty  appearance  due  to  the  dust 
of  the  atmosphere  collecting  in  the  sticky  exudations 
and  to  a  dark  colored  fungus  that  grows  in  it.  Orchards 
have  been  practically  ruined  by  this  pest  in  two  or 
three  years  where  no  effort  has  been  made  to  control  it. 

Remedy — Spraying  in  the  spring  before  the  buds 
have  opened  with  a  twenty-five  per  cent  solution  of 
kerosene,  which  will  destroy  most 
of  the  hibernating  insects  or  eggs,  if 
there  are  any,  and,  when  the  young 
begin  to  appear  in  June,  spraying 
with  a  ten  or  fifteen  per  cent  of  the 
same,  from  one  to  three  (inns,  as 
may  be  needed.  The  trees  should 
be  examined  in  the  warm  days  of 
spring  and  if  this  pest  is  found, 
spraying  should  be  done  as  above, 
and  from  the  first  of  June  very  Flg  i25_pear  Psyiia 
frequent  examinations  should  be 
made  that  the  remedy  may  be  applied  as  soon  as  the 
first  insects  appear. 

Pear  Leaf  Blister  (Phytoptus  pyri) — This  mite 
causes  injury  by  its  puncture  of  the  young  leaves  and 
new  growing  shoots,  entering  the  tissue  and  causing 
blister-like  swellings  of  a  reddish  color  in  the  early 
summer.  The  mite  is  entirely  hidden  from  view  in  the 
tissues  of  the  injured  parts,  where  it  cannot  be  reached 
by  any  insecticide.  The  matured  insect  hibernates 
under  the  bud  scales  or  bark  of  the  tree,  laying  its  eggs 
in  the  warm  days  of  spring. 

Remedy — Spraying  with  kerosene,  twenty-five  per 
cent,  in  water,  before  the  leaves  unfold,  is  sure  to  destroy 
most  of  the  hibernating  insects,  and  perhaps  some  of 


238         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

the  eggs.  Also  as  the  leaves  turn  down  the  mites  may 
be  seen  on  the  outside,  where  many  of  them  may  be 
killed  by  a  ten  per  cent  kerosene  mechanical  emulsion. 

INSECTS   ATTACKING   THE   PEACH 

Peach  Borer  (Sannina  exitiosa] — In  some  years 
this  insect  is  very  destructive,  while  in  others  it  can 
scarcely  be  found.  When  abundant  it  is  a  serious  pest, 
one  larva  being  able  to  girdle  a  tree  three  inches  in 
circumference.  The  perfect  insect  lays  its  eggs  on  the 
trunk  near  the  ground  in  May  or  June  according  to  the 
locality,  and  the  larva  works  its  way  into  the  inner  bark 
and  sapwood,  feeding  over  a  space  amounting  to  an  inch 
or  more  in  diameter.  If  it  works  in  a  direct  line  it 
will  nearly  girdle  a  small  tree.  Its  presence  may  be 
known  by  the  gum  containing  its  chips  or  droppings 
that  exudes  where  the  injury  is  made.  Sometimes 
several  larvae  may  be  found  in  a  single  tree.  The  larvae 
feed  through  the  summer  and  in  the  fall  make  a  cocoon 
of  soil,  chips  and  gum  near  where  they  had  fed  and 
come  out  perfect  insects  the  following  season. 

Remedy — A  great  many  washes  have  been  sug- 
gested to  prevent  the  entrance  of  the  larvae  or  to  kill 
them  as  soon  as  they  hatch  out,  but  none  of  these  have 
been  found  effectual.  The  only  remedy  that  can  be 
relied  upon,  and  it  is  the  cheapest  in  the  end,  is  to 
examine  the  trees  twice  each  year,  in  June  and  in 
August,  and  dig  the  borers  out.  It  is  but  the  work  of 
a  moment  to  draw  the  soil  away  from  the  trunk  of  the 
tree  for  three  or  four  inches  and  if  there  is  any  gum 
exuding  and  this  gum  contains  the  chips  of  the  borers 
the  injured  parts  should  be  followed  until  the  larva  is 
found  and  destroyed.  If  no  gum  exists  or  if  there  are 
no  chips  in  the  gum  the  soil  may  be  drawn  back,  as 
there  is  no  insect  there.  After  a  borer  has  been  dug 


INSECT     PESTS 


239 


out,  the  soil  should  be  put  back  to  protect  the  collar 
of  the  tree  from  the  weather. 

Peach  Aphis  (Myzus  Persicae)—The  aphis  or  green 
louse,  similar  to  that  attacking  the  apple,  is  also 
troublesome  in  some  seasons,  but  in  others  it  does  little 
or  no  harm.  When  the  trees  are  attacked  the  leaves 
curl  up  and  the  lice  are  to  be  found  inside  of  these 
curled  leaves. 

Remedy— Spraying  with  twenty  per  cent  of  kero- 
sene before  the  buds  start  in  the  spring  will  destroy  most 
of  the  hibernating  insects  or  their  eggs,  and  if  ten  per 
cent  is  used  a  few  times 
in  May  and  June  before 
they  become  abundant, 
they  may  be  kept  from 
doing  much  harm*.  It  is 
the  practice  of  some  of 
the  most  careful  peach 
growers  to  spray  as  above 
before  the  leaves  open 
and  then  as  soon  as  the 
insects  begin  to  appear 
make  a  thorough  exam- 
ination and  pick  off  the  first  leaves  infested,  mark  the 
tree  on  which  it  is  found,  and  then  spray  with  whale- 
oil  soap,  one  pound  to  four  gallons  of  water.  In  this 
way  the  insects  never  get  very  numerous,  the  leaves  do 
not  curl  and  the  few  remaining  aphides  are  easily 
destroyed. 

Plum  Curculio — See  under  the  plum. 

INSECTS   ATTACKING    THE   PLUM 

Plum  Curculio  (Conotrachelus  nenuphar) — A 
small  brown  beetle  with  projecting  mouth  parts  or 
proboscis  as  shown  in  Figure  126,  appears  in  the  early 
summer  when  the  plums  are  from  one-eighth  to  one- 


Fig.  126-1  he  Plum  Curculio 


240         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  makes  crescent 
shaped  cuts  on  the  fruit,  ~b,  in  each  of  which  it  lays  an 
egg.  The  eggs  hatch  and  the  larvae,  a,  feed  on  the 
fruit  until  it  is  destroyed,  as  at  d,  most  of  the  fruit 
falling  off  soon  after  being  stung,  though  some  will  hang 
on  the  tree  until  it  colors  and  then  falls.  This  insect  is 
especially  destructive  to  the  European  and  Japanese 
plums.  It  often  badly  disfigures  the  American  varieties 
but  the  larvae  do  not  generally  mature  in  the  fruit  of 
this  group. 

Remedy  —  The  beetle  is  sensitive  to  a  sudden  jar, 
loses  its  hold  and  falls,  and  this  habit  is  taken  advantage 
of  to  capture  it  by  spreading  a  blanket  or  screen  under 

the  tree  before  jar- 
ring. A  curculio 
catcher  is  found  in 
the  market  in  the 
form  of  an  inverted 
umbrella  mounted 

°n 


Fig.  .27-The  Johnson  Curcu.io  Catcher 

like  frame,  as  shown 

in  Figure  127.  This  is  wheeled  under  the  tree,  the 
branches  are  jarred  by  a  padded  stick  or  mallet,  and 
the  insects  caught  in  a  tin  can  in  the  center  of  the 
screen.  This  is  a  sure  remedy  if  begun  early  in  the 
season  and  followed  up  every  day  for  two  or  three 
weeks,  but  is  rather  expensive.  The  remedy  found  the 
cheapest  by  the  writer  is  Paris  green  used  with  the 
bordeaux  as  per  the  spraying  calendar  of  the  station  for 
the  European  varieties,  but  using  the  arsenate  of  lead 
with  the  bordeaux  upon  the  Japan  and  American  sorts. 

Plum  Aphis  (Aphis  prunifolia)  —  This  insect  is 
similar  to  the  species  that  attack  the  pear  and  apple  and 
is  controlled  in  the  same  way. 

San  Jose  Scale  —  See  under  the  apple. 

Peach  Borer  —  See  under  the  peach. 


INSECT  PESTS 


241 


INSECTS  ATTACKING  THE  QUINCE 

Round-Headed  Apple  Tree  Borer — See  under  the 
apple. 

Flat-Headed  Apple  Tree  Borer — See  under  the 
apple. 

Codlin  Moth — See  under  the  apple. 

INSECTS    ATTACKING    THE    CHEREY 

Cherry  Aphis  (Myzus  cerasi) — This  is  the  insect 
that  causes  the  cherry  leaves  to  curl  up  in  the  early 
summer.  It  is  dark  brown  or  black  in  color  and 
increases  so  rapidly  that  it  seems  but  a  day  from  their 
first  appearance  until  they  cover  many  leaves  and  cause 
them  to  curl  and  finally  to  turn  brown  and  drop  off. 

Remedy — If  taken  in 
time  they  may  be  destroyed 
by  the  use  of  kerosene  as 
for  the  apple  or  peach  aphis, 
but  when  the  leaves  have 
begun  to  curl  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  reach  them 
with  any  spray  and  the 
curled  leaves  should  be 
picked  off  and  the  insects 
crushed  or  put  into  kerosene,  before  spraying  begins. 

Rose  Bug,  Rose  Chafer  (Macrodactylus  subspin* 
osus)  (Figure  128) — See  under  the  grape. 

Plum  Curculio — See  under  the  plum.  Paris  green 
cannot  be  used  on  the  cherry.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  the 
best  insecticide  for  the  cherry,  Japanese  plum  and  peach. 

INSECTS  ATTACKING  THE  GRAPE 

Rose  Bug,  Rose  Chafer  (Macrodactylus  subspin- 
vsus)  (Figure  128,  a,  larva;  b,  pupa;  c,  beetle) — This 
beetle,  well  known  to  almost  everyone  because  of  its 


Fig.  128-The  Rose  Bug 


242         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

attack  of  the  rose  and  many  other  garden  plants  in 
June,  is  seldom  seriously  injurious  to  vines  in  the 
large  vineyards,  but  often  destroys  all  of  the  fruit  on 
vines  in  the  garden. 

Remedy — For  the  garden,  hand  picking  is  about 
the  only  means  of  saving  the  fruit  unless  the  vines  are 
covered  with  gauze  or  mosquito  netting.  If  a  pan  with 
a  little  water  and  kerosene  be  held  under  the  vine  where 
the  insects  are  feeding,  and  they  are  just  touched,  they 
fall  from  the  vine  and  will  be  destroyed.  In  the  vine- 
yard, the  spraying  with  the  bordeaux  and  Paris  green 
as  used  for  other  insects  and  fungous  pests,  will  prevent 
the  injury  that  sometimes  would  otherwise  occur  in  a 
few  vines  on  the  edges  of  the  vineyard. 

Berry  Moth  (Eudemis  botrana) — Some  seasons  a 
considerable  number  of  berries  in  a  bunch  are  shriveled 
and  connected  with  other  berries  by  webs,  and  upon 
examination  we  find  a  very  active,  dark  olive  colored 
worm  eating  the  center  of  the  berry.  One  worm  often 
destroys  two  berries  but  not  more.  The  only  remedy 
suggested  is  to  trim  the  bunches  as  soon  as  the  fruit 
is  picked  and  see  that  all  wormy  berries  are  destroyed. 

Grape  Leaf  Hopper  (Typhlocy'ba  vitis) — An  in- 
sect that  has  recently  become  destructive  in  many  locali- 
ties and  one  that  vineyardists  have  not  learned  to  control 
with  any  degree  of  certainty.  It  is  a  small,  light 
colored,  jumping  insect  that  appears  in  July  and  August, 
often  in  swarms,  and,  eating  out  the  green  color  parts 
of  the  leaf,  gives  them  a  light  green  or  almost  white 
color,  which  soon  changes  to  brown,  and  the  leaves  fall. 
It  also  disfigures  the  fruit  with  its  droppings. 

Remedy — Clean  up  the  vineyard  early  and  give 
thorough  cultivation  during  the  early  part  of  the  season. 
All  litter,  leaves  and  grass  should  be  raked  up  and 
burned  in  the  fall  or  early  in  the  spring,  then  a  thorough 
spraying  with  twenty  per  cent  mixture  of  kerosene  early 


INSECT     PESTS 


243 


in  the  season  while  the  insects  are  not  numerous  will 
generally  keep  them  under  control.  It  has  been  found 
that  by  spraying  in  the  morning  with  a  ten  per  cent 
mechanical  mixture  of  kerosene  the  insects  are  knocked 
to  the  ground,  when  by  spraying  them  while  on  the 
ground  with  a  twenty-five  to  thirty  per  cent  mixture 
they  will  be  destroyed. 
Many  other  in- 
sects attack  the 
grape,  but  while  a 
few  of  them  do  seri- 
ous harm  and  many 
of  them  are  destroyed 
by  the  insecticides 
used  for  these  de- 
scribed, it  is  the  part 
of  wisdom  to  exam- 
ine the  vines  criti- 
cally whenever  work- 
ing among  them  and 
to  be  sure  that  they 
are  not  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  do  any 
very  great  damage. 


Fig.  129-Currant  Worm  Fly 


INSECTS  ATTACKING  THE  CURRANT 

The  Imported  Currant  Borer  (Sesia  tipiili- 
formis)—  This  insect  lays  its  eggs  at  the  base  of  buds 
in  the  spring  or  early  summer,  the  larvae  penetrating 
into  the  center  of  the  canes,  feeding  on  the  pith,  and 
causing  the  leaves  to  turn  yellow  or  the  cane  to  break 
off.  The  following  season  it  comes  out  a  perfect  insect 
to  again  go  through  its  range  of  life. 

Remedy— The  presence  of  this  pest  may  be  known 
by  the  yellow  color  of  the  leaves,  or  the  premature 
ripening  of  the  fruit,  when  the  injured  canes  should  be 


244 


SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 


cut  out  and  burned.     Care  must  be  taken  that  the  cut 
be  made  below  where  the  larva  is  feeding. 

Currant  Cane  Girdler  (Janus  flaviventris) — This 
insect  attacks  the  ends  of  the  growing  cane,  making 
numerous  punctures  in  a  circle  around  it,  then  lays  an 
egg  below  the  girdle.  Soon  the  end  of  this  cane  breaks 
off,  leaving  the  egg  at  the  end,  the  egg  hatches,  and 
the  larva,  ensured  an  abundance  of  food  by  the  girdle, 
feeds  downward  toward  the  base  of  the  cane,  where 

the  next  season  it 
may  be  found  from 
one  to  three  feet 
toward  the  root. 
Remedy — As 
soon  as  the  cane 
breaks  off  it  should 
be  cut  an  inch  or 
two  further  toward 
the  base  and  the 
part  containing  the 
egg  dropped  on  the 
ground,  where  it 
will  be  destroyed  by 
the  drying  of  the 
part  cut  off. 

The  Imported  Currant  Worm  (Nematus  ventri- 
cosus) — The  most  destructive  insect  attacking  the  cur- 
rant. Figure  129  shows  the  perfect  insect — a,  the  male; 
&,  the  female.  Figure  130  shows  a  leaf  with  the 
eggs  arranged  on  the  midrib.  The  eggs  are  laid  as 
soon  as  the  leaves  unfold,  the  larvae  upon  hatching 
first  making  minute  holes,  as  shown  in  the  figure, 
but  feeding  with  such  rapidity  that  in  a  few  days'  time 
the  bushes  are  denuded  of  leaves  and  the  fruit  often 
hangs  in  an  unripe  state  through  the  remainder  of  the 
season.  Figure  131  shows  full-grown  larvae  feeding. 


Fig    130-Currant  Leaf  with  Eggs  of 
Currant  Worm 


INSECT     PESTS  245 

Remedy — As  soon  as  the  small  holes  begin  to 
appear  in  the  leaves  the  bushes  should  be  sprayed  with 
powdered  hellebore,  one  tablespoonful  to  two  gallons 
of  water,  or  Paris  green,  one  teaspoonful  to  the  same 
amount  of  water.  If  a  large  plantation  is  to  be  treated 
the  bordeaux  mixture  should  be  used,  adding  Paris 
green,  one-fourth  pound  to  fifty  gallons. 

Currant  Plant  Louse  or  Aphis  (Aphis  ribis)  — 
Many  seasons  the  leaves  of  our  currant  bushes  curl  up 


Fig.  131— Currant  Worms  Eating;  Leave* 

and  turn  to  a  reddish-brown  color,  when  upon  examina- 
tion we  find  a  mass  of  these  lice  feeding  within  the 
curled  leaves. 

Remedy — As  with  the  other  aphides  the  time  to 
destroy  the  pest  is  when  they  just  begin  to  appear  and 
before  they  become  numerous  and  the  leaves  are  badly 
curled.  This  may  be  done  with  the  ten  per  cent  mix- 
ture of  kerosene  or  a  strong  solution  of  whale-oil  soap. 
The  work  of  destruction  may  be  made  more  certain  by 
picking  off  the  leaves  most  curled. 


246         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

Currant  Fruit  Worm  (Eupithecia  interrupto-fac- 
iata) — This  insect  injures  the  fruit  by  attacking  a  few 
berries  in  a  bunch  and  when  abundant  causes  much  loss 
of  fruit  and  a  great  amount  of  labor  in  preparing  it  for 
market. 

Remedy — The  only  remedy  suggested  is  to  pick  the 
injured  clusters  as  soon  as  the  injury  is  discovered,  and 
destroy  them. 

Four-Striped  Plant  Bug  (Poecilocapus  lineatus) — 
A  bright  yellow  and  black  bug  about  three-tenths  of  an 
inch  long  with  two  black  stripes  on  each  wing  cover. 
It  punctures  the  young  leaves  of  the  currant  and  goose- 
berry, producing  irregular  brown  spots  of  dead  tissue. 
When  these  spots  are  very  numerous  the  leaves  drop  off. 

Remedy — Spraying  with  a  ten  per  cent  mixture  of 
kerosene  or  by  knocking  them  off  into  a  pan  of  kerosene 
are  the  only  remedies  suggested.  In  both  cases  tKe 
work  should  be  done  early  in  the  morning. 

INSECTS    ATTACKING    THE    GOOSEBERRY 

Imported  Currant  Worm — See  under  the  currant. 

Currant  Plant  Louse — See  under  the  currant. 

Currant  Cane  Girdler — See  under  the  currant. 

Gooseberry  Fruit  Worm  (Dakruma  convolutella) — 
In  habits  this  insect  is  much  like  the  currant  berry 
moth,  and  the  remedy  is  the  same,  which  see. 

INSECTS    ATTACKING    THE    RASPBERRY 

"Raspberry  Root  Borer  (Bembecia  marginata) — 
Closely  resembling  the  peach  borer  in  many  ways. 
They  are  pretty  black  and  yellow  banded  insects  with 
transparent  wings  that  lay  their  eggs  on  the  leaves 
in  the  middle  of  the  summer.  The  larva  feeds  upon  the 
pith  of  the  canes  and  passes  down  to  the  roots  in  the 
fall  or  winter.  The  following  spring  it  turns  and  comes 


INSECT    PESTS  247 

up,  generally  through  another  cane,  and  undergoes  its 
changes  several  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  canes  and  the  roots  are  often  so  injured  as  to  start 
very  slowly  in  the  spring,  turning  yellow  in  the  early 
summer  and  finally  dying. 

Remedy — The  only  remedy  suggested  is  that  of 
cutting  off  the  injured  canes  and  digging  out  the  borer 
in  the  root.  Vigorous  growth  will,  in  a  measure,  over- 
come its  injury. 

Raspberry  Cane  Borer  (Oberea  bimaculata) — A 
small  long-horned  beetle  with  a  black  body  and  a 
pale  yellow  thorax  marked  with  three  blar!;  spots. 
It  flies  in  June  and 
lays  its  eggs  between 
two  girdled  places 
near  the  end  of  the 
young  canes,  when 
only  a  few  inches  high. 
The  canes  break  off  at 

the    top    girdle,    when       pig.  132-The  May  Beetle  and  Larva 

the  food  supply  will  be 

increased  for  the  larva  that  soon  hatches  and  bores  down 
the  cane,  feeding  in  the  pith  until  the  following  spring, 
when  it  comes  out  a  perfect  insect  in  May  or  June. 
Remedy — To  overcome  this  pest  the  injured  canes 
should  be  cut  off  below  the  lower  girdle  soon  after  the 
egg  is  laid. 

INSECTS  ATTACKING  THE  BLACKBERRY 

Raspberry  Root  Borer — See  under  the  raspberry. 
Raspberry  Cane  Borer — See  under  the  raspberry. 

INSECTS    ATTACKING    THE    STRAWBERRY 

May  Beetle  (Lachnosterna  fusca)  (Figure  132) — 
In  the  larval  form  this  insect  is  injurious  to  the  straw- 
berry by  feeding  on  the  roots  of  newly  set  plants.  The 


248 


SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 


perfect  insect  is  too  well  known  to  need  description, 
being  the  large  brown  beetle  that  flies  at  night  into  our 
open  windows  in  May,  called  the  Mlay  beetle  or  June 
bug,  and  the  larva,  the  large  white  grub  that  we  find 
in  plowing  turf  land  in  the  spring  and  summer. 

Remedy — To  prevent  injury,  the  land  to  be  planted 
with  strawberries  should  be  clean  cultivated  one  or  two 
seasons  before  the  plants  are  set,  as  the  insects  only  lay 
their  eggs  in  soil  well  supplied  with  roots  for  their 
young  to  feed  upon  and  avoid  clean  cultivated  ground. 
The  Strawberry  Crown  Borer  (Tyloderma  fra- 
gariae]  (Figure  133) — A  small  brown  beetle  about 

three  -  sixteenths 
of  an  inch  long 
that  lays  its  eggs 
in  June  or  July 
about  the  crown 
of  the  plants. 
The  eggs  hatch 
soon  and  the 
larvae  pass  down 
into  the  crown, 
feeding  upon  the  crown  and  surface  roots,  and  become 
perfect  insects  in  August  or  September. 

Remedy — As  this  insect  is  in  the  larval  state  during 
the  middle  of  the  summer,  few  or  none  of  the  eggs 
will  be  laid  in  the  newly  set  plants,  and  if  the  old  bed 
is  turned  under  in  July,  most  if  not  all  of  the  larvae 
will  be  destroyed  by  this  operation.  Thus  where  this 
insect  is  abundant  the  annual  method  of  cultivation 
of  the  strawberry  becomes  a  necessity. 

Spotted  Paria  (Paria  sex-notata) — A  rather 
smaller  beetle  than  the  last,  nearly  black  with  three 
light  bars  on  each  wing  cover.  It  appears  soon  after 
the  fruit  has  set,  feeding  upon  the  leaves,  and  when 
in  large  numbers  causes  considerable  injury  in  tho 


.  133— Strawberry  Crown  Borer 


INSECT     PESTS  249 

beetle  form.  Its  eggs  are  laid  on  the  crown  of  the  plant 
and  no  doubt  do  as  much  injury  in  the  larval  forms  as 
in  the  mature  form.  The  leaves  of  the  plants  attacked 
often  show  numerous  small  holes  in  them  and  when 
very  numerous  the  young  leaves  are  nearly  destroyed. 

Remedy — Plowing  under  the  fruiting  plantation  in 
July  has  proved  a  satisfactory  remedy. 

Numerous  other  insects  have  at  times  been  more  or 
less  injurious  to  this  crop,  but  are  only  of  local  impor- 
tance, and  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  horticulturists 
of  his  local  station  and  urged  to  consult  them  in  cases 
of  any  new  pests  that  may  appear  upon  his  grounds. 


XXI 
FUNGOUS  DISEASES 

Most  of  the  diseases  attacking  our  fruit  trees 
and  commonly  known  as  rusts,  blights,  rots,  mildews, 
etc.,  are  known  to  botanists  as  fungi  or  closely  allied 
plant  growths.  As  a  rule  they  are  minute  thread- 
like plants,  that,  growing  in  the  tissues  of  other  plants 
called  "host"  plants,  just  as  the  corn  grows  in  the  soil, 
destroy  the  parts  affected,  or  so  weaken  them  that 
the  leaves  fall  off,  the  fruit  is  spotted  or  decays,  or  the 
trunks  or  branches  are  injured,  etc.  The  plants  of  this 
class  are  often  very  minute,  so  much  so  as  to  be  almost 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  propagate  or  increase  by 
means  of  minute  seedlike  bodies  called  spores.  These 
are  so  minute  as  to  be  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  unless 
in  masses,  and  are  carried  about  by  the  winds,  often  for 
miles  at  a  time,  and  consequently  there  are  few  localities 
where  these  spores  may  not  be  found,  and  under  favor- 
able conditions  be  ready  to  grow. 

Kearly  all  of  this  group  of  plants  grow  only  under 
conditions  of  moisture  and  high  temperature,  though 
some  of  them,  like  the  apple  scab,  flourish  in  rather 
cool  weather.  Most,  if  not  all,  of  these  spores  require 
actual  water  for  their  germination,  as  dew  or  rain,  and 
after  becoming  rooted  in  their  "host"  plant  grow  in  the 
juices  of  the  cellular  tissues,  sending  their  roots  from 
cell  to  cell,  taking  up  the  cell  contents  for  their  own 
development,  and  the  leaves,  the  branches  or  other  parts 
attacked  become  weakened  because  the  food  supply  is 
taken  up  by  the  parasite,  the  amount  of  injury  to  any 


FUNGOUS     DISEASES  251 

plant  depending  upon  the  number  and  vigor  of  the 
parasite  or  robber  plant  that  is  feeding  upon  its  tissues. 
The  amount  of  injury  done  in  a  season  will  depend 
upon,  first,  the  condition  of  the  weather — little  or  no 
injury  being  done  in  cool,  dry  weather,  while  in  warm, 
moist  weather  this  class  of  plants  are  sure  to  develop 
rapidly ;  and  second,  upon  the  vigor  and  strength  of  the 
host  plant  to  resist  the  attack  of  the  parasites. 

FUNGICIDES 

Any  substance  that  will  destroy  or  prevent  the 
growth  of  a  fungus  is  called  a  fungicide,  or  fungus 
killer,  and  in  the  growth  of  all  of  our  farm  and  garden 
crops  it  has  become  a  necessity  to  use  fungicides  as 
well  as  insecticides,  and  the  fruit  grower  must  equip 
himself  with  apparatus  for  this  work  just  as  much  as 
with  tools  for  cultivation  if  he  would  insure  his  crops. 

As  explained  under  the  treatment  for  insect  pests, 
so  with  fungous  pests  the  fruit  grower  must  depend 
upon  his  local  experiment  station  for  full  and  detailed 
instruction  as  to  preventive  measures,  appliances,  and 
applying  fungicides,  but  a  brief  description  of  the 
fungicides  in  most  common  use  may  not  be  out  of  place 
in  this  volume. 

Copper  Sulphate — This  substance  has  become  an 
almost  universal  fungicide  and  is  most  used  in  a  mix- 
ture with  lime  known  as  the  bordeaux  mixture. 
Standard  bordeaux  mixture  is  made  up  of  four  pounds 
copper  sulphate,  four  pounds  caustic  lime  and  fifty 
gallons  of  water.  But  where  the  fruit  is  in  a  condition 
to  be  disfigured  by  it,  it  is  used  as  a  weak  solution  of 
copper  sulphate  alone.  The  bordeaux  mixture  is  found 
in  the  market  already  prepared  for  use  and  under 
various  names,  and  many  of  them  have  some  value, 
especially  where  the  amount  of  spraying  is  small  and  the 


252         SUCCESSFUL  FKUIT  CULTURE 

cost  of  procuring  materials  and  making  would  be  more 
than  the  crop  to  be  sprayed  would  be  worth,  but  nu- 
merous experiments  have  proved  beyond  doubt  that  the 
freshly  prepared  mixture  is  much  more  effective  and 
cheaper  than  any  thus  far  found  in  the  markets. 

Solutions  of  Copper  Sulphate — Where  the  fruit 
would  be  disfigured  by  the  bordeaux,  the  two  solutions 
of  this  substance  without  the  lime  are  used,  the 
ammoniacal  solution  and  the  simple  solution.  These 
solutions  are  equally  effectual  with  the  bordeaux  for  the 
time  being,  but  are  so  soon  washed  off,  in  case  of  rain 
storms,  that  they  must  be  renewed  after  every  rain,  and 
wherever  the  bordeaux  can  be  used  it  will  be  much  more 
satisfactory  because  more  lasting. 

Insecticides  and  fungicides  have  become  almost  as 
much  of  a  necessity  as  fertilizers  in  the  growth  of  farm 
and  garden  crops,  and  to  ensure  success  in  the  business, 
the  fruit  grower  must  be  equipped  with  the  best  imple- 
ments for  their  application. 

The  cost  of  this  equipment  is  so  great  that  many 
small  growers  cannot  afford  to  purchase  it  and  the  only 
way  that  the  work  of  the  small  grower  can  be  profitably 
done  is  by  co-operation.  One  powerful,  well-built  pump 
with  proper  nozzles  and  an  abundance  of  hose  would 
be  sufficient  to  do  all  the  spraying  in  most  of  our  small 
townships,  and  one  man  who  has  become  skilled  in  the 
work  would  do  the  same  amount  much  more  quickly 
and  better  than  if  it  were  divided  among  a  dozen  or 
twenty.  The  cost  of  material  would  be  much  less  when 
bought  in  large  quantities  and  there  would  be  much  less 
waste  of  material  when  all  was  mixed  in  one  set  of 
vessels. 

There  are  often  seasons  and  sections  where  our 
fruit  crops  escape  injury  from  insect  or  fungous  pests, 
but  there  are  few  localities  where  they  always  escape, 
and  the  cost  of  spraying  is  so  small  when  done  in  a 


FUNGOUS    DISEASES  253 

business  way  that  no  one  should  risk  a  complete  loss  of 
a  crop  which  is  sure  to  come  at  times  when  the  season 
is  especially  favorable  to  insect  or  fungous  life.  As 
these  pests  are  so  minute  as  to  be  illustrated  only  in 
a  highly  magnified  form,  a  description  is  all  that  will 
be  attempted,  the  reader  being  referred  to  more  scientific 
works  on  the  subject  of  fungous  pests. 

FUNGOUS    PESTS   ATTACKING    THE   APPLE 

The  Apple  Scab  (Fusidadium  dendriticum) — 
This  is  an  olive  green  spot  fungus  that  attacks  the 
surface  of  the  leaves  and  fruit,  and  grows  with  especial 
vigor  during  moist,  rather  cool  weather.  It  feeds 
only  on  the  epidermis  or  skin  of  the  leaf  or  fruit, 
often  causing  the  former  to  fall  off  during  the  summer, 
but  only  disfiguring  the  fruit,  unless  it  is  attacked  very 
early  in  the  season,  when  it  too  falls  off,  or  it  is  disfig- 
ured or  one-sided.  This  fungus  does  not  work  in  the 
tissues  of  the  fruit  but  disfigures  it  and  injures  its  looks 
and  its  keeping  qualities.  The  spores  or  seeds  of  this 
pest  are  so  minute  as  to  be  invisible  except  by  the 
closest  observation,  and  may  be  carried  long  distances 
by  the  wind.  The  only  preventive  is  to  have  the  copper 
solutions  on  the  leaves  and  fruit  to  prevent  the  growth 
of  these  spores  whenever  there  is  moisture  on  them. 

Remedy — Spray  with  the  bordeaux  in  the  early 
part  of  the  season  and  after  the  fruit  is  nearly  grown 
with  the  solution  of  copper  sulphate. 

Cedar  Apple  Fungus  (Roestelia  pirata) — This 
fungus  appears  in  small  yellow  clusters  on  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves  and  sometimes  on  the  fruit,  and  when 
very  abundant  both  leaves  and  fruit  fall  off  and  the  tree 
is  seriously  weakened. 

Remedy— It  the  trees  are  sprayed  as  per  spray  in.? 
calendar  issued  by  each  State  experiment  station,  little 
or  no  injury  will  come  from  this  fungus. 


254          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

Black  Rot  (Sphaeropsis  malorum) — The  dying  of 
the  end  branches  of  the  apple  and  pear,  and  the  dead 
patches  of  bark  also  found  on  the  large  branches  and 
trunk,  are  caused  by  this  disease.  The  injured  parts  are 
nearly  black  in  color  and  studded  over  with  pustules  or 
bead-like  projections  in  which  the  spores  are  borne. 
It  also  attacks  the  fruit  in  large  black  masses  or  some- 
times infests  the  entire  apple.  When  attacked  in  the 
young  stage  the  fruit  hangs  on  the  trees  until  the 
following  season. 

Remedy — Spraying  as  for  the  cedar  apple  fungus 
is  effective. 

Powdery  Mildew  (Podosphaera  oxyacanthae) — This 
fungus  attacks  young  apple  seedlings  in  the  nursery 
in  the  early  summer  and  often  so  checks  their  growth 
that  they  cannot  be  budded,  but  is  seldom  injurious  to 
large  trees. 

Remedy — The  dipping  of  the  seedlings  in  the  bor- 
deaux mixture  before  they  are  planted  and  one  or  two 
sprayings  during  the  summer  will  generally  prevent 
any  injury.  Trees  planted  in  good  soil  on  high  land  in 
full  exposure  to  light  and  air,  are  less  likely  to  be 
attacked  than  those  in  low  places  or  moist  soil. 

FUNGOUS  PESTS  ATTACKING  THE  PEAR 

The  Apple  Scab  and  Apple  Rust,  previously  de- 
scribed, are  also  injurious  to  the  pear,  but  not  to  so 
great  a  degree,  and  the  remedies  are  the  same. 

Leaf  Blight  or  Leaf  Spot  (Entomosporium  macu- 
latum) — This  appears  first  as  minute  red  dots  that 
increase  to  from  one-sixteenth  to  one-eighth  of  an  inch, 
in  diameter,  and  when  in  large  numbers  cause  the  leaves 
to  fall  off  in  the  middle  of  the  summer,  seriously 
weakening  the  tree,  or  if  the  fruit  is  attacked,  causing 
it  to  crack.  Sometimes  a  second  set  of  leaves  comes 
out  late  in  the  summer,  or  even  blossoms  appear,  and 


FUNGOUS    DISEASES  255 

the  wood  fails  to  ripen,  in  which  case  the  tree  is  very 
liable  to  injury  during  the  winter  or  to  the  attack  of 
the  fire  blight  the  following  summer. 

Remedy — Spraying  as  per  the  spraying  calendars 
of  the  stations  will  entirely  overcome  the  disease. 

Fire  Blight  (Bacillus  amylovorus) — This  is  a 
bacterial  disease  similar  to  the  yeast  plant  in  habit  of 
growth  that  develops  rapidly  in  moist  hot  weather.  The 
minute  cells  (it  is  a  one-celled  plant)  or  spores  enter 
the  tree  through  some  soft  tissues,  possibly  the  pistil  of 
the  flower,  or  some  broken  place  where  the  bark  has 
opened  by  the  growth  of  the  inner  cells,  when,  if  the 
weather  is  hot  and  the  tree  in  the  proper  condition,  it 
grows  very  rapidly,  requiring  but  a  few  days  to  spread 
through  an  entire  tree.  The  first  appearance  of  the 
disease  may  be  the  wilting  of  the  .leaves  of  the  branch 
or  branches  attacked.  Sometimes  only  a  small  branch 
is  attacked,  while  in  others  the  attack  may  be  on  the 
main  branches,  which  cuts  off  circulation,  and  large 
portions  of  the  tree  die. 

Remedy — All  diseased  branches  should  be  cut  off 
as  soon  as  the  disease  appears,  as  far  back  as  the  wood 
seems  to  be  injured,  and  burned,  and  everything  be  done 
that  is  possible  to  give  the  tree  a  vigorous,  but  sound 
and  hard  growth  of  wood.  Few  trees  will  be  injured 
by  this  disease  if  they  are  properly  protected  from  the 
leaf  blight  during  the  summer. 

FUNGOUS    PESTS    ATTACKING    THE    PEACH 

Peach  Scab  or  Black  Spot  (Cladosporium  car- 
pophilum) — In  seasons  when  there  are  frequent  rains 
and  close  moist  weather  this  fungus  is  often  destructive 
to  many  varieties  of  peaches.  It  is  more  prevalent  on 
low  land  than  where  it  is  high  and  in  full  exposure  to 
air  and  sunlight.  When  the  fruit  is  attacked  early  in 
the  season  the  growth  of  the  parts  affected  is  checked 


256          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

and  it  becomes  one-sided,  falls  off,  or  often  cracks 
open.  Even  if  only  spotted  the  quality  of  the  fruit  is 
so  injured  as  to  be  worthless. 

Remedy — Spraying  before  the  leaves  appear  in  the 
spring  with  the  strong  bordeaux  (4 :4 :50),  and  when  the 
leaves  have  opened  with  the  dilute  bordeaux  (4:4:200), 
will  prevent  its  attack.  It  is  best  also  to  spray  once 
after  the  leaves  have  unfolded  and  at  least  twice  the 
last  of  July  and  early  August.  Paris  green  should 
never  be  used  on  peach  foliage,  but  arsenate  of  lead 
may  be  safely  used. 

Brown  Rot,  Fruit  Rot,  Twig  Blight  (Monilia 
fructigena] — This  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  of  the 
fungi  attacking  the  peach,  causing  the  rotting  of  most 
of  the  early  kinds  and  often  some  of  the  later  kinds. 
It  also  attacks  the  twigs  in  the  hot,  moist  weather  of 
summer,  often  doing  serious  harm.  The  fruit  is  .first 
turned  brown  and  soon  is  covered  with  myriads  of  light 
gray  or  almost  white  spores.  The  branches  attacked 
are  killed,  Avhile  the  fruit  drops  off  or  dries  on  the  tree, 
often  remaining  through  the  fall  and  winter.  Such 
varieties  as  the  Alexander,  Triumph,  etc.,  very  seldom 
escape  unless  the  ripening  season  is  dry  and  rather  cool. 

Remedy — All  dried  or  mummied  fruit  should  be 
picked  from  the  trees  in  the  winter  or  spring  and  be 
burned  and  the  branches  sprayed  with  the  strong 
solution  of  copper  sulphate  just  before  the  leaves  begin 
to  unfold  in  the  spring.  Otherwise  the  treatment  is 
the  same  as  for  the  black  spot.  This  fungus  also 
attacks  all  of  the  stone  fruits,  and  none  of  the  dried  fruit 
should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  trees  after  new 
growth  of  leaves  begins,  as  the  spores  are  sure  to  increase 
the  amount  of  this  disease  on  the  peach  and  other 
stone  fruits. 

Peach  Curl  (Exoascus  deformans) — In  seasons 
when  the  weather  comes  on  very  hot  in  May  so  as  to 


FUNGOUS     DISEASES  25? 

cause  an  early  and  rapid  growth  and  is  followed  by  very 
low  temperature,  the  growth  of  the  leaves  is  so  checked 
that  this  fungus  finds  the  right  conditions  in  which  to 
develop ;  the  leaves  become  thickened  and  distorted  and 
after  a  time  drop  off,  to  be  followed  by  another  set  of 
leaves  a  little  later.  If  the  trees  are  vigorous  and 
healthy  the  growth  will  be  but  little  checked  by  this 
attack,  but  if  the  trees  are  not  vigorous  the  injury  is 
often  very  great.  It  is  not  often  seriously  injurious  in 
orchards  in  rather  light  land  and  on  high  elevations. 
In  the  orchards  of  the  Massachusetts  agricultural  college, 
which  the  author  has  had  charge  of  for  thirty  years, 
no  serious  injury  has  occurred,  but  two  seasons,  and 
^one  to  speak  of  for  fifteen  years,  or  since  the  practice 
'of  spraying  has  been  a  part  of  the  routine  of  the  care 
of  the  orchards. 

Remedy — Spraying  before  the  leaves  unfold  with 
the  standard  bordeaux,  and  again  soon  after  they  are 
well  developed  with  dilute  bordeaux  (4:4:200),  is  a 
certain  remedy. 

Peach  Yellows — This  is  an  obscure  disease,  or 
condition  of  growth,  of  which  no  specific  fungus  or 
bacterial  germs  or  growth  has  been  discovered.  It 
shows  itself  in  many  different  ways.  When  it  attacks 
the  tree  it  may  be  known  by  a  smaller  growth  of  leaf, 
narrow,  of  a  lighter  color  in  its  first  stages,  and  as  it 
advances  they  grow  in  clusters  or  tufts  and  are  often 
of  a  reddish  color;  sometimes  only  one  branch  is 
affected,  but  sooner  or  later  the  whole  tree  will  die 
unless  it  be  severely  headed  back  and  fertilized  abund- 
antly. The  fruit  ripens  prematurely,  is  of  a  more 
brilliant  color  than  is  usual,  and  often  bitter  to  the 
taste.  It  is  also  of  small  size.  Most  old  trees  as  they 
approach  maturity  show  all  of  the  symptoms  of  the 
yellows.  The  disease  is  probably  of  a  physiological 
nature  and  may  be  brought  on  by  any  cause  that 


358          SUCCESSFUL  .FRUIT  CULTURE 

weakens  the  tree,  as  severe  weather  in  winter  following 
a  season  of  coarse  and  immature  growth,  overbearing, 
injury  from  insects,  etc.,  etc. 

Remedy — The  disease  being  of  so  obscure  a  nature 
it  is  not  profitable  to  spend  much  effort  in  trying  to 
doctor  sick  trees,  especially  as  young  trees  can  be  grown 
to  bearing  size  in  three  years'  time,  and  when  trees 
show  unmistakable  signs  of  the  disease  it  is  best  to  pull 
them  out  and  burn  them  at  any  time  during  the  summer, 
fall  or  winter,  and  plant  young  trees  in  their  place. 
This  is  the  practice  in  the  large  peach  growing  sections 
of  Michigan  and  other  States.  Anything  that  can  be 
done  to  increase  the  hardiness  and  firmness  of  the  wood 
and  bud  growth  will  tend  to  protect  them  from  this 
disease,  as  frequent  cultivation,  or  the  application  of 
an  abundance  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  with  only 
nitrogen  enough  to  produce  a  moderate  amount  of 
wood,  etc. 

Peach  Rosette  is  a  disease  somewhat  of  the  same 
nature  of  the  yellows,  but  appears  earlier  in  the  season 
and  is  characterized  by  a  more  leafy  growth,  and  should 
be  treated  the  same  as  the  yellows. 

Powdery  Mildew  (PodospJiaera  oxyacanthae) — See 
under  the  apple. 

Leaf  Rust  (Puccinia  pruni-spinosa) — See  under 
the  plum. 

FUNGOUS    PESTS    ATTACKING    THE    PLUM 

Black  Knot,  Blade  Wart,  etc.  (Plowrightia  mor- 
bosa) — More  of  the  plum  trees  of  both  the  European 
and  Japanese  varieties  are  destroyed  by  this  pest  than 
by  any  other  causes.  It  is  known  by  the  large  black 
excrescences  seen  on  neglected  plum  trees,  and  is  a 
fungous  growth,  the  spores  of  which  enter  the  tissues 
at  some  soft  place,  and,  growing  rapidly,  soon  cause  the 
death  of  the  tree  unless  checked  in  its  early  development. 


FUNGOUS     DISEASES  259 

Remedy — If  the  trees  are  sprayed  with  the  bor- 
deaux mixture  (4:4:50)  as  per  spraying  calendar  of 
the  stations,  this  fungus  will  be  kept  under  control.  If 
any  warts  appear  they  should  be  cut  off  and  burned  in 
the  winter  or  spring  before  growth  begins. 

Shot-hole  Fungus  (Cylindrosporium  padi)  (Sep- 
toria  cerasina  Peck) — This  fungus  attacks  all  of  the 
plums,  and  in  very  moist  seasons  is  very  destructive 
unless  the  trees  are  thoroughly  sprayed.  It  first 
appears  as  small  red  spots  in  the  leaf  which  soon  in- 
crease in  size  and.  turn  brown.  After  a  time  the 
brown  part  of  the  leaf  drops  out,  leaving  small  holes, 
which  gives  the  name  to  the  disease. 

Remedy — Spraying  as  for  the  last  named  fungi. 

Leaf  Rust  (Puccinia  pruni-spinosa) — In  its  effect 
upon  the  tree  and  in  general  appearance  this  fungus 
is  very  much  like  the  last;  the  spots,  however,  are 
smaller  and  as  a  rule,  more  numerous,  and  cause  the 
leaves  to  fall  in  the  same  way.  In  some  sections  of  the 
country  it  is  more  prevalent  than  the  shot-hole  fungus 
and  in  others  less  so.  Both  are  readily  controlled  by 
spraying  as  above  described. 

Plum  Pockets,  Plum  Bladders  (Exoascus  pruni) 
— This  fungus  attacks  the  fruit  while  young,  causing 
it  to  swell  until  it  often  reaches  full  size  in  a  few  days, 
first  light  green  or  yellow,  then  as  the  spores  develop 
on  the  outside,  it  assumes  a  grayish  color  and 
then  a  dark  brown.  The  American  varieties  are  more 
subject  to  its  attack  than  are  the  European  or  the 
Japanese. 

Remedy — Spraying  as  for  the  last  two  fungi  will 
be  found  effectual  in  keeping  this  pest  in  check. 

Brown  Rot  (Monilia  fructigena) — See  under  the 
peach. 

Powdery  Mildew  (Podospliaera  oxyacanthae) — See 
under  the  apple. 


260  SUCCESSFUL     FRUIT     CULTURE 

FUNGOUS    PESTS    ATTACKING    THE    QUINCE 

Black  Rot  (Sphaeropsis  malorum] — Previously  de- 
scribed under  the  apple. 

Fire  Blight  (Bacillus  amylovorus) — This  disease, 
previously  described  under  the  apple,  rarely  attacks 
more  than  the  twigs  of  end  shoots,  sometimes  destroying 
all  of  the  fruit,  but  I  know  of  no  instance  where  the 
whole  tree  has  been  destroyed,  or  even  permanently 
injured. 

Remedy — Cutting  off  the  diseased  shoots  and  keep- 
ing the  trees  in  a  healthy  condition  are  the  only  pre- 
ventive measures  thus  far  known. 

Leaf  Blight  (Entomosporium  maculatum) — The 
leaf  blight  of  the  pear  is  often  as  destructive  to  this 
fruit.  See  under  the  pear. 

Quince  Rust  (Roestelia  aurantiaca) — This  rust  is 
similar  in  growth  and  appearance  to  the  cedar  apple 
fungus  described  under  the  apple.  It  attacks  the  fruit 
and  also  the  branches,  and  when  in  the  fruiting  stage 
gives  the  parts  attacked  a  golden  yellow  color.  T)ur'> 
the  fall  and  winter  the  injured  parts  are  black. 

FUNGOUS    PESTS    ATTACKING    THE    CHERRY 

Brown  Rot  (Monilia  fructigena] — See  under  the 
plum. 

Leaf  Blight  (Cylindrosporium  padi] — See  under 
the  plum. 

Black  Knot  (Plowrightia  morbosa) — See  under  the 
plum. 

Powdery  Mildew  (Podosphaera  oxyacanthae) — See 
under  the  apple. 

FUNGOUS     PESTS     ATTACKING     THE     GRAPE 

Anthracnose,  Scab,  Bird's-Eye  Rot  (Spaceloma  am- 
pelinum  DeB.) — This  is  one  of  the  most  destructive 


FUNGOUS     DISEASES  261 

diseases  that  we  have,  growing  as  it  does  on  all  parts 
of  the  vine,  and  in  its  early  stages  so  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish. In  its  first  stage  of  growth  it  presents  minute 
circular  brown  spots  on  the  fruit  and  larger  dark  gray 
or  reddish-brown  areas  on  the  stems  and  leaves.  Some 
varieties  are  more  subject  to  the  attack  of  the  anthrac- 
nose  than  others,  those  containing  European  blood,  i.  e., 
those  originating  from  crosses  of  European  and  Amer- 
ican varieties,  being  more  likely  to  be  attacked  than 
pure  native  seedlings  like  the  Concord,  etc. 

Remedy — Spraying  with  the  bordeaux  mixture  be- 
fore the  leaves  unfold  and  two  or  three  times  in  May 
and  June,  as  per  spraying  calendars,  is  effectual  in  keep- 
ing this  disease  in  control. 

Black  Rot  (Guignardia  Bidwellii) — This  disease  is 
called  the  black  rot  from  the  fact  that  the  fruiting  pus- 
tules and  the  fruit,  in  its  last  stages  of  disease,  are  black, 
though  when  it  first  appears  it  is  grayish  in  color.  In 
the  center  of  all  the  diseased  spots,  whether  on  the 
leaves  or  fruit,  may  be  found  numerous  black  pustules 
which  contain  the  spores  of  the  fungus.  It  appears 
most  abundantly  and  does  the  most  injury  when  the 
berries  are  nearly  full  grown. 

Remedy — Thorough  spraying  must  be  done 
throughout  the  season  to  prevent -injury  when  the  dis- 
ease has  once  become  established.  See  spraying  cal- 
endar. 

Downy  Mildew,  Brown  Rot,  Gray  Rot  (Peronospora 
viticola) — The  stems,  leaves  and  fruit  are  attacked  by 
this  fungus,  which  in  moist,  hot  weather  is  likely  to  do 
serious  hnrm  unless  spraying  is  practiced.  On  its  first 
appearance  the  leaves  are  of  a  lighter  green  on  the  p.-irts 
attacked,  which  is  soon  followed  by  a  whitish  powder, 
the  spores  of  the  fungus,  that  are  scattered  by  the  wind 
and  are  sure  to  grow  when  the  weather  is  hot  and 
moist.  Leaves,  fruit  and  canes  are  subject  to  attack. 


262          SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

Light  rains  or  misty  weather  are  especially  favorable  to 
its  growth,  but  heavy  rains  wash  off  the  spores  and  are 
therefore  preventive.  Such  varieties  containing  foreign 
blood  as  the  Delaware,  Brighton,  Rogers  Hybrids,  etc., 
are  especially  subject  to  this  disease  and  the  next. 

Remedy — First,  do  everything  possible  to  insure  a 
vigorous,  strong  vine,  then  spray  with  the  bordeaux 
according  to  the  calendar. 

Powdery  Mildew  (Uncinula  spiralis) — This  fungus 
is  similar  to  the  last  in  its  effect  upon  the  leaves  and 
stems  of  the  grape,  and  sometimes  attacks  the  fruit,  but 
it  does  not  appear,  generally,  until  late  in  the  season. 
It  is  darker  gray  in  color  and  often  covers  over  every 
part  of  the  leaf  and  young  cane. 

Remedy — Where  this  pest  is  abundant  spraying 
must  be  done  the  last  of  August  and  early  September 
with  the  simple  solution  of  copper  sulphate,  four  ounces 
to  fifty  gallons  of  water,  and  repeated  once  or  twice  if 
heavy  rains  wash  it  off.  The  bordeaux  mixture  cannot 
be  used  at  this  time,  as  it  would  disfigure  the  fruit  by 
adhering  to  the  stems. 

FUNGOUS    PESTS    ATTACKING    THE    RASPBERRY 

Anthracnose,  Cane  Rust  (Gloeosporium  venetum) 
— Similar  to  the  anthracnose  of  the  grape,  appearing  in 
June  and  July  and  attacking  the  new  canes  principally, 
but  sometimes  the  leaves  also.  On  old  plantations  it 
is  more  destructive  than  on  those  recently  planted. 

Remedy — The  free  use  of  the  bordeaux  mixture 
once  before  the  leaves  unfold  and  once  or  twice  after 
the  leaves  have  opened,  but  before  the  fruit  has  set,  will 
control  this  disease. 

Leaf  Blight.,  Leaf  Spot  (Septoria  rubi) — This 
disease  appears  the  latter  part  of  summer  in  the  form 
of  small,  light  brown  spots,  attacking  the  lower  leaves 
first  and  working  toward  the  top  of  the  canes,  so  that 


FUNGOUS    DISEASES  263 

at  the  end  of  the  season  only  a  few  of  the  upper  leaves 
remain  uninjured.  If  this  loss  of  leaves  occurs  early 
in  August,  as  it  sometimes  does,  the  canes  are  very 
seriously  injured. 

Remedy — Spraying  as  for  the  anthracnose  will  also 
overcome  this  disease. 

Spring  Orange  Rust  (Coema  luminata) — This  dis- 
ease first  appears  in  the  spring,  the  leaves  and  canes 
attacked  being  light  green  in  color,  which  is  followed 
by  large  masses  of  golden  yellow  spores,  and  the  final 
drying  up  of  the  parts  attacked.  The  spores  probably 
germinate  during  the  summer  and  fall  and  grow  in  the 
tissues  near  the  ground,  to  start  into  vigorous  growth 
with  the  new  growth  of  the  canes  in  the  spring. 

Remedy — The  spraying  done  for  the  anthracnose 
and  leaf  blight  has  but  little  effect  upon  this  pest,  as  it 
is  growing  inside  of  the  plant,  but  if  the  plants  are 
thoroughly  sprayed  two  or  three  times  after  the  fruit 
is  gathered  in  the  summer,  the  spores  will  be  prevented 
from  germinating  and  becoming  established  in  the  new 
growth  during  the  latter  part  of  the  summer.  Also,  as 
soon  as  the  disease  can  be  detected  in  the  spring,  all 
affected  canes  should.be  removed  and  burned. 

Fall  Orange  Rust  (Phragmidium  albida) — This 
disease  appears  during  the  latter  part  of  summer  and 
early  fall  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  of  many  varie- 
ties of  the  raspberry  and  blackberry.  The  clusters  of 
spores  are  bright  orange  yellow  and  are  much  more 
scattered  than  those  of  the  spring  orange  rust. 

Remedy — If  spraying  is  done  as  soon  as  the  fruit 
has  been  gathered,  as  for  the  last  disease,  it  will  prevent 
serious  injury. 

FUNGOUS     PESTS    ATTACKING     THE    BLACKBERRY 

Leaf  Spot  (Septoria  rubi) — See  under  the  rasp- 
berry. 


264         SUCCESSFUL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

Spring  Orange  Rust  (Coema  luminata) — See  under 
the  raspberry. 

Fall  Orange  Rust  (Pliragmidium  albida) — See 
under  the  raspberry. 

FUNGOUS    PESTS    ATTACKING    THE    CURRANT 

Antliracnose,  Leaf  Blight  (Gloeosporium  ribis}  — 
A.  fungus  that  appears  first  in  rather  fine  dots  on  the 
leaves  the  latter  part  of  June  or  July,  and  when  in 
large  numbers  causing  the  leaves  to  fall  in  a  few  weeks, 
leaving  the  canes  bare  until  the  following  spring.  The 
result  of  this  is  that  they  make  but  little  growth  and 
bear  very  small  or  very  little  fruit  the  season  after  being 
attacked. 

Remedy — Spray  with  the  bordeaux  mixture  thor- 
oughly just  before  the  leaves  unfold  and  again  just 
before  the  blossoms  open,  using  Paris  green  the  second 
time  for  the  currant  worm.  A  third  spraying  with  a 
weak  bordeaux  (4:4:200),  having  it  well  strained  so 
as  not  to  disfigure  the  fruit,  about  the  first  of  July, 
will  be  beneficial. 

Rust.,  Leaf  Spot  (Septoria  ribis) — Similar  to  the 
last  in  general  appearance,  but  producing  larger  spots 
and  coming  later  in  the  season.  It  attacks  the  lower 
leaves  first  and  works  toward  the  top  of  the  canes,  until 
only  a  few  leaves  are  left  on  the  canes. 

Remedy — Same  as  for  the  last. 

FUNGOUS    PESTS    ATTACKING    THE    GOOSEBERRY 

Mildew  (Sphaerotheca  morsuvae) — The  foliage  and 
fruit  of  the  gooseberry  are  often  covered  with  a  light 
gray  powder  early  in  the  season  that  stops  growth  of 
the  bush  and  destroys  the  fruit.  In  dry,  rather  cool 
seasons  there  is  little  of  this  disease. 

Remedy — If  abundantly  sprayed  with  the  bordeaux 
mixture  early  in  the  spring  and  before  the  fruit  is  full 


FUNGOUS    DISEASES  265 

grown,  and  with  the  dilute  bordeaux  as  it  approaches 
maturity,  the  injury  will  be  largely  prevented. 

Rust,  Leaf  Spot  (Septoria  ribis) — See  under  the 
currant. 

FUNGOUS     PESTS     ATTACKING     THE    STRAWBERRY 

Leaf  Blight,  Rust  (Sphaerella  fragariae) — The 
reddish  or  brown  spots  that  come  so  abundantly  on  the 
leaves  of  the  strawberry  in  the  spring  or  summer  are 
caused  by  this  fungus.  It  grows  most  abundantly  in 
warm,  moist  weather,  and  when  the  plants  are  in  a 
weakened  condition  from  any  cause. 

Remedy — To  insure  the  best  results  from  the  use 
of  the  bordeaux  mixture,  the  leaves  of  the  plants  should 
be  dipped  in  it  before  they  are  set  in  the  spring,  and 
the  growing  plants  sprayed  several  times  during  the 
summer.  In  the  spring,  before  fruiting,  the  beds  should 
be  sprayed  once  or  twice  before  the  blossoms  open. 

Mildew  (Sphaerotheca  castagnei) — The  fungus 
produces  a  light  grayish  growth  on  the  surface  of  the 
fruit  and  leaves  in  the  spring  that  seriously  checks  the 
growth  of  the  plants  and  injures  the  berries. 

Remedy — A  vigorous  growth  of  plant  should  be 
produced  by  an  abundance  of  plant  food  in  the  soil,  and 
the  use  of  the  bordeaux  for  the  leaf  blight  will  do 
the  rest. 


PAGE 

Apple  aphis  231 

assorting  61 

black  rot  of  ....254 

boxes  vs.  barrels 62 

budding   187 

bud  sticks  187 

budding,    conditions    for 

success  189 

buds,  cutting  off  stock.. 189 
buds,   first  year  in  nur- 
sery     190 

buds,  second  year  in  nur- 
sery     190 

buds,   forming  head 190 

buds,  nursery   treatment 

of   189 

cedar  fungus  253 

classification     of     varie- 
ties      52 

climate  and  soil  for 8 

common    7 

co-operation    in    market- 
ing      67 

eo-operation  in  selling... 190 
digging     the     holes     for 

trees    15 

evaporated   4 

exporting  4,  65 

facing  58 

home  market  65 

heading  barrels   63 

insects   injurious   to 183 

maggot    234 

marketigg    : 65 

trees,  Ko.  1 62 

trees,  No.  2 62 

number  of  bushels 2 

orchard,      distance      for 

planting    12 

orchard,      double      thick 

planting    12 

orchard  fillers  12 

orchard,     green     manur- 
ing    11 

orchards,   large    12 

orchard,  laying  out  13 

orchard,   -esult   of   close 

planting    13 

orchard  planting  board..  15 
orchard,    preparation    of 
land   for   10 


Apple   orchard,    preparation 

of  trees  for  9 

orchard,  young  trees  for     9 

propagation  of  183 

propagation  of  stocks.. ..184 

powdery  mildew  of 254 

package  and  packing 62 

root  grafts,   packing  of. 186 

root  grafts,  planting  186 

root  grafts,  conditions  of 

success  190 

root  grafts,  first  year  in 

nursery    190 

root  grafts,  second  year 

in  nursery  190 

scab    253 

slope    and    exposure    of 

land    g 

seeds,  care  of  184 

seed  bed  184 

seed  sowing  184 

seedlings,   thinning   184 

seedlings,  fertilizers  for. 184 
seedlings,  cultivation  of.184 

seedlings,  digging   185 

seedlings,  heeling-in   185 

seedlings,    root    grafting 

the    .185 

seedlings,  budding  187 

selection  of  varieties 52 

stenciling  barrels  64 

storing    67 

storing  In  bushel  boxes..  61 
tree  borer,  flat-headed.. 224 
tree  borer,  round-headed. 223 

trench  plowing  10 

trees,  where  to  obtain...  10 
trees,  number  of  In  Unit- 
ed States  2 

trees,  protection  of  roots.191 
varieties  of:  Albemarle 

Pippin    57 

Alexander   57 

Astrachan    !tt 

Baldwin    56 

Ben  Davis  55 

Danvers  Sweet  58 

Early  Harvest    11 

Fallawater   58 

Fameuse    5C 

Fall  Pippin  55 

Golden  Sweet   67 

Oravensteln     64 

Grimes  Golden   58 


INDEX 


Apple,    varieties    of:     Hub- 

Blackberry,      varieties      of: 
Taylor                                  136 

winter  protection  for  ...135 

dewberry   137 

King    56 

dewberry,  method  of  cul- 

tivation                              137 

Ladies'  Sweet  57 

dewberry,    variety    best, 

Lucretia                               138 

Mackintosh              ...       55 

attacking    264 

Oldenburg    54 

Black  knot  fungus  258 

Pomme  Royale  58 

Blueberry     bushes,     cutting 

Pumpkin  Sweet   57 

back   175 

Rhode  Island  Greening..  56 
Roxbury  Russet  56 
Spy   56 

bushes,  fertilizers  for  175 
bushes,   transplanting..  ..174 

.success    174 

Twenty  Ounce    58 

mulching    175 

Washington  Royale  (Pal- 

pasture  rotation  175 

Brown  rot  fungus                      256 

Wealthy                                  54 

Williams             ...             54 

Budding                                         187 

Wolf  River  58 

Apricot  —  care    of  92 

c 

propagation  of   196 

Cedar  apple  fungus                253 

protecting  from  Insects..  93 
stock  for  92 

Cherry—  importance    of  103 

thinning  fruit  92 

under  glass   207 

varieties  of:  Montgamet.  93 
Moorpark  93 

Duke   107 
fertilizers  for  103 

Russian  94 

insects  attacking  241 
aphis    241 

B 

marketing  the  107 

Morello    107 

Bearing  year  of  fruit  trees.  45 

Mazzard    190 

Blackberry—  age  of  bearing.  132 
cultivation  of  131 
dewberry    137 

orchard    103 
soil  for  103 

hill  system  131 
importance  of  130 
planting    131 

pruning  the  104 
seedlings,  soil  for  196 

pruning  132 
row  system  131 

seedlings,  nursery  treat- 
ment    196 

soil  for  130 

sour  104,  107 
tree,  cracking  of  trunk..  104 

time  for  planting  131 

varieties  of:  Heart  107 
Gov.  Wood  ....107 

Black  Tartarian   107 

varieties  of:  Agawam   ..136 

Downer's  Late  107 

Yellow  Spanish  107 

Erie                                           136 

Rockport    107 

Schmidt                           •  •••107 

May  Duke  107 

INDEX 


2GU 


PAGE 

Cherry,  varieties  of:  Royal 
Duke                                    107 

B 

Evaporated  fruit                          4 

Morello                        107 

Early  Richmond  107 

F 

English  Morello  107 

Fertilizers  for  orchard  29 

Fig—  importance  of  180 

Cions    time  or  cutting  j>u 

cultivation  and  pruning.  181 

Citrus  fruits  176 

growing  in  tubs  181 

varieties  of:  Black  Ischia.  181 

Cold   grapery    213 

Brunswick    181 

preparation  of  border  of.213 
storage   house,  construc- 
tion of              68 

Adriatic    181 
Forcing  strawberries  216 
Foreign  market  for  fruit  —    3 

Commercial     fertilizers     for 

Fruit     as     a     promoter     of 
health  2 

Co-operation  in  selling  fruit.  67 
In  spraying  222 
Copper  solutions   252 

as  a  luxury  2 
as  a  money  crop  2 
canned   •.  .    4 

sulphate    257 
Cover  crops  in  orchard  32 
crops    in    orchard,    time 

evaporated   4 
growing,  future  of  5 
house,  cost  of  206 

Cultivation  —  effects  of  23 

house,  curvilinear  205 

Currant  anthracnose  264 

of                                          205 

black,  importance  of  150 
black,  varieties  of:  Black 

trees    in     pots,    summer 
care  of   211 

Black  Naples  243 

trees  in  pots,  winter  pro- 
tection      210 

borer  (imported)   243 

Fungous  diseases  250 

cane  girdler                 ....    244 

distance  for  planting  —  147 

apple                                    253 

fruit  worm  246 

golden   flowering,   impor- 

tance of  151 

golden  flowering,  variety: 

Crandall's  Improved  —  151 

cherry  260 

harvesting    and    market- 

grape     260 

ing                                        146 

262-264 

insects  attacking  243 

leaf  spot              246 

planting               148 

pruning               243 

Q 

striped  plant  bug  246 
worm  (imported)  244 

Gooseberry  fruit  worm  246 

Phe'rrv                                  •  •  •  -146 

insects  attacking   246 

Fav's    146 

method  of  cultivation  —  151 

Red  Cross  146 

propagation    of    by    cut- 

vrViiY*        T^                  11                                    14ft 

propagation  of  by  stools.  201 

D 

varieties  of:   Columbus..  152 

varieties   of   ..            137 

Industry  162 

270 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Grafting                         47 

Grapes  under  glass  planting 

chisel                                   ...  47 

third  year                         '215 

cleft                                         •  47 

fruit           '                         216 

root                                185 

i          noinouse.  .  .  .£io 

stock  for                                 185 

TT1        *•        '        O*                l^tieS    OI. 

wax                           49 

na  csweet   water.  -^lo 

belt                                            -114 

black  rot  260 

crop    of    United    States, 

Wilder                                     128 

number  of  pounds  2 

Worden                                   125 

cold   grapery  212 

red,  Brighton  126 

cold  storage  of  125 

Delaware,    126 

distance  of  planting  115 

Niagara                                127 

f  ox                              114 

T                     A 

imported  currant  worm  Z44 

frost  114 

Introduction    1 

girdling  the  vine  128 

blackberry                       ""247 

grafting  the  200-201 

currant                                    243 

insects  attacking  242 

peach                                     238 

pear                                        236 

leaf  hopper  242 

plum    239-240 

mildew,  downy  262 

quince    241 

mildew,  powdery  262 

origin  and  history  of  —  114 
picking  tray  124 
packing  and  shipping  124 
planting  the  vine  116 

strawberry    248 

Insect  pests  220 
pests,   effect   of  weather 

propagation  of  the  198 

Insecticides    221 

pruning  summer  120-121 

arsenate  of  lead  221 

training,  second  year.  .  .  .120 
training    third  year  121 

crude  petroleum  221 
hellebore  221 

London  purple  221 

linseed  oil  221 

trellis    posts  for        118 

trellis    wires  119 

pyrethrum  221 

trellis,  braces  for  120 
under  glass,  cold  grapery.212 
under  glass,  preparation 
of  border  213 
under  glass,  planting  and 
training  the  vine,  first 

whale  oil  soap  221 
Insect   pests—  prevention  220 
pests,  spraying  for  222 
pests,  spraying  outfit  for.222 

L, 

Ladders                                           59 

ond  year  ...                 —  214 

steo  ...                              ...  «0 

INDEX 


271 


PAGES 

Leaf  spores  64 

Lemons 176 

Loquat   182 

importance  of  182 


May  beetle  247 

Medlar  182 

importance  of 182 

Mulberry    112 

importance  of  112 

varieties  of:  Downing  ...113 

New  American  113 

Tea's  Weeping  113 

N 

Nectarine    92-94 

care  of  94 

protection  from  insects..  94 

propagation  of   196 

varieties  of:  Boston 94 

Pitmaston   94 

Rivers  Orange  94 


Oranges— cultivation    of   or- 
chard   177 

cover  crop  in  orchard....  178 
fertilizers  for  orchard... 177 

gold   (kumquat)    180 

importance  of  176 

number  of  boxes  3 

mandarin   176 

planting  orchards  177 

protection  of  trees  from 

frost   179 

sour    176 

sweet  176 

stock  for  sweet  177 

training  trees  177 

varieties       of:       Boone's 

Early   180 

Homosassa   180 

Jaffa    180 

Maltese  Blood  180 

Pineapple  180 

Satsuma   180 

Washington  navel   180 

Orchard— apple,       age       of 

bearing  44 

apple,    commercial    ferti- 
lizing      30 

apple,  cover  crops  for 22 

apple,  cultivation  of  23 

apple,     fertilization     and 

care    29 

apple,     green     manuring 

for  32 

apple,  mulching  34 

apple,  odd  year  bearing..  44 
apple,  preparing  trees  for 
planting    17 


Orchard,      apple,      planting 

trees  in  is 

apple,  planting  the  tree.  16 

pruning   35 

pruning,  first  year 36 

regrafting  old  trees 46 

stable  manuring   29 

turf  culture  27 

utilizing  wastes  of 4 

Oyster  shell  bark  louse 225 


Peach— after  pruning  81 

aphis   239 

basket  90 

basket,  cost  of  96 

borer   238-240 

brown  rot  256 

curl  256 

house  for  the  207 

harvesting   and    market- 
Ing  89 

Importance  of  78 

keeping  fruit  91 

orchard,  care  of  81 

orchard,  cover  crops  ....  83 
orchard,  distance  of 

planting    79 

orchard,  fertilizers  for...  84 

orchard,  in  turf  83 

orchard,  land  for  79 

orchard,  four  years  old.  86 
orchard,  five  years  old...  87 
orchard,  preparation  of 

land  for 79 

orchard,    preparation    of 

trees  for  planting 80 

orchard,  trees  for  plant- 
ing   79 

orchard,  cultivated  85 

packages  89 

propagation   194 

pruning,  first  year  81 

rosette   258 

seeds   194 

seeds,  budding  194 

seeds,  natural  fruit  194 

seeds,  planting  194 

seedlings     budded,     first 

year  1!>5 

scab   255 

seedlings,  budding  195 

seedlings,  cultivation  of.195 

thinning   fruit    89 

trees.  No.  1  80,  195 

trees.  No.  2  80,  195 

tree,  pruned   83 

tree,  pruning  81 

trees,  number  of 2 

tree,   number  of  bushels 

fruit    2 

tree,  unpruned  84 


272 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Peach  under  glass       207 

Pear,     varieties     of*     Law- 

rence      76 

border                                  .208 

Patrick  Barry                        76 

Seckel    75 

under  glass,  fertilizing...  209 
under  glass,  pruning  and 
training      210 

Sheldon    75 
Worden  Seckel   76 

under  glass,  planting  ...208 
under  glass,  thinning  ...210 
under  glass,  trees  for  —  208 
under  glass    watering  209 

importance  of  181 
Japanese  181 
varieties  of:  Hyakume...l82 
Yeddo    ....                           182 

under  glass,  varieties  of: 
Royal  George  210 

Plum—  American  stocks  for.  102 

Golden  Eagle  210 

Goshawk  210 

black  knot                             258 

varieties  of:  Alexander..  88 

classification  of                     95 

/^Th                    •         •••••*•                                                 00 

p  an  SLOCK  lor  yo 

V^IlfcUIlp  «JU     • 

^1V111           .     *      "                                                               QQ 

leaf  rust                                 95 

pocket                                      259 

yellows                    257 

after  care  of  tree  73 

pruning   97 

distance  for  planting  72 

thinning  fruit  98 

Hawkeye    102 

importance  of  71 

Wildgoose    ..                   102 

Wolf                                         102 

leaf  blister  mite  237 

Wyant    102 

European   99 

•Bradshaw                               101 

picking  and  packing  77 
propagation  of   192 

Fellenberg  101 
Gen.   Hand   101 

propagation    of    seedling 

stock                                   192 

Kingston                                 101 

propagation,          nursery 

Lincoln    101 

McLaughlin                           101 

Quackenboss      101 

pruning    first  year  72 

Pond's  Seedling  101 

Smith's   Orleans                  101 

Victoria  101 

Japanese,  Abundance  101 

soil   for                                     72 

Burbank             101 

Chabot                                     101 

October  Purple  101 

Red  June  101 

Ansault   73 

Satsuma  101 

Bartlett    74 

Wickson   101 

Picking  baskets  59 

Clapp                                         74 

Pomelo  (grape  fruit)  180 

Dana's  Hovey   76 
Gifford    74 

varieties  of:  Duncan  ....180 
Rovale    180 

Kieffer   75 

Triumph    1W 

INDEX 


273 


PAGE 

Powdery  mildew                       258 

Propagation  of  apple  Ill 

Cumberland   115 

blackberry           202 

blackcap                                 203 

Shaffer                                  146 

cherry                                       196 

Columbian                             146 

currant                                  .  201 

fall  orange  rust                  263 

grape                198 

fungous  pests  attacking  2G2 

importance        of       home 

insects  attacking   246 
leaf  spot  ....                         262 

peach                                 ....194 

pear     192 

red,  distance  for  planting  139 

plum                                        196 

quince    197 

ing  139 

strawberry                           .203 

bert                                      142 

grown  in  United  States.    3 

King    142 

Pruning  —  covering       wounds 

Miller                                        142 

Phoenix                                  142 

Thompson's  Pride               142 

Early  Prolific                      142 

hooks    41 

g 

San  Jose  scale                    228   240 

Spotted  paria  '  248 

Q 

Quince—  bush  form  109 
Champion  110 

Spraying  pumps  222 
Strawberry—  arrangement  of 
staminate  and  pistillate 
Plants   IK, 
baskets    166 

cuttings  197 
distance  for  planting  109 

crates    166 
crown  borer  248 
cultivation  of  159 

harvesting  fruit  110 
importance  of  108 

diseases  of  265 
fertilizers  for  153,  160 

Insects  attacking  ^1 
layering    197 

hedge  row  system  157 

orchard,  soil  for  108 

importance  of  153 

soil   for           108 

stool,  first  year  197 

stool,  socond  year  197 

best  kinds  of  plants  155 

R 

leaf  spot  or  blight  265 
Marshall  carrier  166 

_                            _                            -« 

£Vd,»|>i)trrry   ariliirrK.n    Be    '"f'ttn 

mildew                                      2tTp 

blackcap,     distance     for 

picking  and  pickers  l«tl 
plants,  pistillate   l» 

blackcap,  propagation   ..144 
blackcap     pruning    144 
varieties  of:  Palmer  145 
Kansas    ..                        ...145 

plants,  stamlnatf   155 
plants  from  fruitin?  field  503 
planting  time  for  154 
planting,  depth  of  150 

274 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Strawberry,  propagation  of.203 

T 

PAGE 

Tent  caterpillar                      227 

n^ng      ru      a  v          ,es  ^ 

fruit    time  for                      43 

plants    163 

fruit,  cost  of  43 

varieties  of:  Bubach  (pis- 
tillate)      165 
Brandy  wine   (staminate).165 
Clyde  (s  )                                164 

Tools—  landside  plow  22 
cutaway  orchard  harrow.  2G 
grape  hoe  26 

row    25 

weeder   27 

Gandy  (s  )           165 

Top-working  the  pear  193 

Glen  Mary  (s.)  165 
Haverland  (p  )  164 

Trees  —  establishing      the 
head  18 

Marshall  (s.)  164 
Nick  Ohmer  (s.)  164 
Sample  (p.)  164 

heeling-in  20 
increasing    hight    of    top 
of  young  19 
labeling  22 

Warneld  (p.)  164 
winter  protection  of  162 
under  glass,  extent  of....  216 
under  glass,  conditions  of 

planting    21 
Turf  culture  in  orchards....  27 

V 

under  glass,  layering  the 

plants  for  forcing  217 
under     glass,      tempera- 

cover crops  116 

ture    219 

under     glass,     fertilizers 
for  ...                            ....213 

W 
Woolly  aphis  235 

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